PRACTICAL  NATURE  STUDY 

AND  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

A   MANUAL   FOR    THE   USE  OF 
TEACHERS  AND  NORMAL   STUDENTS 


BY 
JOHN    M.   COULTER 

Director  of  the  Department  of  Botany,  University  of  Chicago 

JOHN    G.   COULTER 

Teacher  of  Biology,   Illinois  State  Normal  University 

ALICE   JEAN    PATTERSON 

Teacher  of  Nature  Study,   Illinois  State  Normal  University 


NEW    YORK 

D.    APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 
1909 


COPYRIGHT,  1909,  BY 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE vii 

PART   ONE 

CHAPTER 

I. — NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE  i 

II. — THE  TRAINING  OF  THE  WORKING  TEACHER  .        .  5 

III. — THE  MISSION  OF  NATURE  STUDY        ..        .        .11 

IV. — THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY        ...  29 

V. — THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  NATURE  STUDY    ...  46 

VI. — THE  SPIRIT  OF  NATURE  STUDY     ....  60 

VII. — THE  CHILD  AND  NATURE  STUDY  ....  75 

PART   TWO 

VIII. — TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND  SEASONS      .  82 

IX. — TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS 107 

PART   THREE 
X. — OUTLINE   IN   NATURE  STUDY  AND  ELEMENTARY 

AGRICULTURE  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS  .        .        -153 
XI. — SUGGESTIONS  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS  WITH  CROWD- 
ED PROGRAMMES 158 

XII. — SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TREE  STUDY     ....  162 

XIII. — CUTTINGS 168 

XIV. — THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS  .        .-        .        .        .        .172 

XV. — PLAN  FOR  WEED  STUDY  .     •  .        .        .        .        .  177 

XVI. — STUDY  OF  WEATHER        : 181 

XVII. — BULB  GARDENING     .     - 186 

XVIII. — STUDY  OF  WILD  FLOWERS 191 


Vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIX. — LIFE  IN  WATER         .        .                .       .        .  197 

XX. — RURAL  SCHOOL  GARDENING     ....  203 
XXI. — SUGGESTIONS    FOR    CONDUCTING    WORK    IN 

THE  SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES          .  207 
XXII. — POLLINATION  AND  SEED  FORMING          .        .210 

XXIII. — PLANT  BREEDING 214 

XXIV. — INSECTS 217 

XXV. — FUNGI  AND  BACTERIA 224 

XXVI. — SELECTING,    JUDGING,    AND    STORING    SEED 

CORN 231 

XXVII. — PHYSICAL  EXPERIMENTS 235 

XXVIII. — SOME  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  ON  BODIES     .        .  241 

XXIX. — METHODS  OF  HEATING  BODIES       .        .        .  244 

XXX. — GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS 249 

XXXI. — STUDY  OF  OATS 255 

XXXII. — PLANT  PRODUCTS       .        .        .        .        .        .  259 

XXXIII. — SIMPLE  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SOIL  CHEMISTRY  .  264 
XXXIV. — SOIL  AND  ITS  ORIGIN        .        .        .        .        .277 

XXXV. — SOME    PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    AND    CONDI- 
TIONS OF  SOIL .  280 

XXXVI. — How  PLANTS  Do  THEIR  WORK      ...  288 
XXXVII. — How  TO  KEEP  THE  SOIL  IN  CONDITION  TO 

SUPPLY  THE  NEEDS  OF  PLANTS          .        .299 

PART   FOUR 

XXXVIIL— BIRD  STUDY 303 

XXXIX. — SCHOOL  GARDENS 314 

XL. — SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  MISCONCEPTIONS  .        .  320 

XLI. — THE  GENERAL  LIFE  PROCESSES      .        .        .  324 

XLII. — EXPLANATIONS  OF  EVOLUTION        .        .        .  333 

XLIII. — EVOLUTION  AS  SHOWN  BY  PLANTS        .        .  339 

INDEX 351 


PREFACE 


BOOKS  about  nature  study  have  become  numerous,  perhaps 
more  numerous  than  good  teachers  of  it.  These  books  deal 
with  principles  and  methods  and  somewhat  with  material,  so 
that  the  student  or  the  teacher  need  be  at  no  loss  for  sugges- 
tions. But  the  subject  is  so  new  and  nature  so  extensive  and 
the  suggestions  as  to  use  of  material  often  so  general  that  the 
books  seem  to  differ  confusingly,  and  the  honest  seeker  for 
help  often  becomes  more  mystified  the  more  he  reads.  In  fact, 
nature  study  is  still  in  the  period  of  suggestion,  a  period  which 
may  be  trying  to  the  experienced  teacher,  but  which  is  a  neces- 
sary antecedent  to  the  period  of  experiment.  The  time  has 
come  for  extensive  experiment  by  trained  teachers,  putting  to 
rigorous  test  the  suggestions  that  seem  hopeful.  Teachers 
will  always  have  the  last  word. 

It  is  not  with  the  hope  that  this  confusion  of  suggestions  will 
be  cleared  up  that  these  pages  are  written.  Their  purpose  is 
simply  to  state  the  situation  in  such  a  way  that  the  teacher  may 
become  more  independent  in  his  work  and  thought  and  thereby 
better  able  to  eliminate  confusion  from  his  own  particular 
problem.  We  shall  never  reach  general  agreement  in  this 
matter  until  many  good  teachers  have  conducted  careful  ex- 
periments and  their  results  have  been  sifted.  Even  when  this 
is  done,  teachers  themselves  are  such  variable  factors  that  no 
hard-and-fast  schemes  of  nature  study  can  be  or  ought  to  be 
constructed,  but  rather  an  approved  body  of  principles,  the 
details  of  whose  application  must  be  left  to  the  individual 
teacher. 

vii 


Viii  PREFACE 

Part  Two  of  this  text  contains  a  detailed  topical  outline  by 
grades  and  seasons  of  the  materials  used  in  nature  study  in  the 
training  school  at  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University.  Though 
this  program  has  stood  the  test  of  repeated  satisfactory  use  in 
practically  all  its  parts,  and  represents  the  result  of  much  sifting 
and  rejection  and  rearrangement,  it  is  by  no  means  to  be 
interpreted  as  fixed.  It  represents  simply  the  present  status 
of  the  work.  Each  season  is  certain  to  bring  its  quota  of  minor 
modifications,  either  of  addition  or  subtraction. 

The  detailed  outlines  for  work  upon  selected  topics  which, 
as  models,  follow  the  topical  outline  are  believed  to  be  rather 
more  definite  in  character  than  many  heretofore  appearing, 
and  are  designed  to  be  of  service  primarily  to  teachers  who  are 
called  upon  to  handle  the  subject  with  slight  previous  training. 
They  are  not  indicative  of  any  belief  on  the  part  of  the  authors 
that  all  nature  study  material  should  be  so  prescribed  as  to 
manner  of  treatment.  They  represent  simply  an  effort  to  ful- 
fill the  function  suggested  in  the  general  title;  to  aid  in  making 
nature  study  practical,  not  so  much  under  ideal  conditions  as 
under  the  conditions  of  teaching  as  we  have  them.  In  these 
outlines  references  to  other  books  for  necessary  information  is 
avoided,  the  design  being  to  make  each  outline  as  nearly  as 
possible  complete  in  itself  and  ready  for  use. 

Part  Three  contains  a  shorter  outline  for  the  work  in  the 
lower  grades  arranged  according  to  seasons,  and  leading  more 
directly  to  the  agricultural  studies  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades.  It  also  contains  suggestions  for  conducting  certain 
studies  without  having  any  special  place  on  the  daily  program 
for  nature  study,  and  in  coordination  with  the  other  school 
subjects.  But  it  is  principally  devoted  to  an  outline  course 
for  elementary  agriculture  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  with 
most  of  the  lessons  worked  out  in  detail.  This  material  and 
these  lessons  have  all  been  used  in  regular  class  work  and  found 


PREFACE  IX 

efficient  under  conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  "average" 
rural  school. 

Part  Four  comprises  certain  chapters  upon  more  general 
topics;  material  which  has  been  found  serviceable  for  teachers 
whose  general  science  training  has  been  slight  or  lacking 
entirely.  The  aim  is  to  provide  a  scientific  point  of  view  or 
the  materials  and  principles  which  are  to  be  used  in  the  work. 
Here  also  are  chapters  on  method  in  bird  study  and  garden 
management.  It  is  a  common  observation  that  the  usual 
college  or  normal  school  courses  in  science  do  not  adequately 
prepare  teachers  of  nature  study.  This  appears  to  be  due  in 
large  part  to  the  absence  of  the  nature  study  method  from  these 
courses;  they  are  courses  in  " organized  knowledge."  Yet  the 
obligation  to  meet  county  superintendents'  examinations  or 
university  requirements  for  credit  are  obstacles  at  present  to 
much  alteration  of  the  character  of  these  courses.  To  meet 
this  difficulty  at  Normal  a  course  entitled  Method  in  Nature 
Study  and  Elementary  Agriculture  is  made  prerequisite  to  the 
teaching  of  nature  study  in  the  training  school  and  comes  after 
the  conventional  courses  in  the  sciences.  In  this  course  these 
chapters  have  been  used  as  a  text.  In  fact,  this  little  book  is 
somewhat  an  outgrowth  of  that  course. 

THE  AUTHORS. 


PRACTICAL  NATURE  STUDY  AND 
ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


PART   ONE 
CHAPTER   I 

NATURE   STUDY   AND  AGRICULTURE 

NATURE  study  seeks  to  bring  children  into  intelligent 
and  sympathetic  touch  with  their  environment.  The  en- 
vironment determines  the  material  that  is  selected  for  the 
lessons.  In  an  agricultural  community,  for  example,  the 
lessons  must  be  primarily  agricultural.  In  no  other  way 
can  nature  study  fulfill  its  mission.  //  makes  no  difference 
whether  we  call  it  elementary  agriculture  or  agricultural 
nature  study;  it  is  the  same  thing  and  should  be  so  under- 
stood. It  is  study  of  plants  and  animals,  of  soils  and 
weather,  of  natural  forces  and  phenomena,  of  the  inter- 
relations and  interdependence  of  natural  objects,  of  the 
relation  of  all  these  to  man,  and  of  man's  power  in  controll- 
ing them  and  making  them  work  for  his  good. 

The  idea  appears  to  be  prevalent  in  some  quarters  that 
nature  study  is  one  thing  and  that  elementary  agriculture  is 
another,  and  that  the  two  are  somewhat  antagonistic.  In 
fact  this  idea  has  gone  far  enough  to  elicit  from  one  in- 
fluential quarter  the  statement,  in  effect,  that  "  nature  study 


2  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

and  school  gardens  "  must  be  got  out  of  the  schools  before 
elementary  agriculture  can  be  got  in. 

Such  an  idea  is  as  unfortunate  as  it  is  erroneous.  It 
appears  to  be  based  on  the  assertion  that  nature  study  is  not 
"  near  to  life,"  not "  practical,"  as  elementary  agriculture  is. 
Elementary  agriculture  can  get  no  nearer  to  life  than  nature 
.study  should,  and  nature  study  aims  to  get  near  to  a  broader 
if  not  higher  aspect  of  life  than  pertains  to  agriculture  alone. 
These  two  things  are  one  subject;  they  have  a  common 
educational  value,  or  else  none  sufficient  to  make  them 
worthy  of  a  place  in  the  schools.  It  is  a  case  of  "united 
they  stand,  divided  they  fall."  If  nature  study  fails  to 
consider  economic  values  and  the  best  benefits  which  man 
may  derive  from  nature,  then  it  is  not  justified.  If  ele- 
mentary agriculture  fails  to  consider  the  response  to  all 
nature  which  may  be  aroused  in  us — the  one  thing  which 
will  make  higher  agriculture  consistent  with  higher  living 
— if  it  is  purely  utilitarian  and  "  practical,"  then  it,  too,  is 
not  justified  in  a  school  system  which  aims  to  turn  out  a 
higher  type  of  man  as  well  as  a  higher  type  of  farmer. 

Instead  of  impeding  agriculture  in  the  schools,  nature 
study  must  be  there  to  make  agriculture  wholly  successful. 
Agriculture  is  called  for  in  some  courses  of  study  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades,  but  it  will  never  realize  the 
success  it  should  have  in  those  grades  if  nature  study  is  not 
taught  in  the  lower  ones.  It  does  not  take  much  insight 
into  child  psychology  to  realize  that  if  boys  and  girls  have 
not  been  trained  to  keep  eyes  and  ears,  mind  and  heart, 
open  to  nature,  if  they  have  not  acquired  a  taste  for  cultivat- 
ing plants  and  solving  problems  connected  with  them  before 
they  have  reached  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  they  are 


NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE  3 

not  so  likely  afterwards  to  acquire  a  permanent  and  en- 
thusiastic interest  in  agriculture. 

In  planning  the  lessons,  the  children  rather  than  the 
subject  must  be  given  first  consideration.  They,  rather 
than  the  subject,  are  to  be  taught.  There  is  evidence  that 
the  enthusiasm  of  some  leaders  in  agricultural  instruction 
has  tended  to  obscure  this  principle.  Children  must  be, 
met  upon  their  own  ground,  along  lines  of  their  own  inter- 
ests. The  problems  they  are  set  to  working  out  must  be 
problems  that  appeal  to  them;  not  necessarily  problems 
that  appeal  to  adult  farmers.  Lacking  this  consideration, 
the  very  purpose  for  which  agriculture  is  being  introduced 
into  the  schools  will  be  defeated.  Instead  of  keeping  boys 
on  the  farm  we  may  drive  them  away  from  it. 

The  work  should  begin  no  later  than  the  intermediate 
grades  and  should  be  guided  along  lines  of  investigation 
and  problem  solving  as  fully  as  the  training  of  the  teacher 
permits.  Nor  is  such  training  difficult  to  attain  if  serious 
effort  is  made.  It  must  be  a  study  of  real  objects;  not  a 
study  about  objects.  It  must  include  doing  things,  work- 
ing with  hands  and  tools  as  well  as  minds,  v/lt  should  lead 
to  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  important  natural  ob- 
jects of  the  environment,  to  observation  of  relationships, 
to  some  knowledge  of  plant  growth  and  propagation,  to 
recognition  of  friends  and  foes  among  insects  and  birds,  to 
some  understanding  of  weather,  etc. 

By  the  time  children  have  reached  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  they  are  ready  to  take  up  the  applied 
lessons  in  nature  directly  connected  with  agriculture  as  an 
industry.  Thus  the  value  of  such  preliminary  training  is 
twofold;  the  pupils  gain  a  fund  of  useful  knowledge  as  a 


4  NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

foundation  upon  which  to  build  the  "practical"  work,  and 
they  come  to  it  with  live  interest  and  questioning  minds. 
Then  the  work  is  educative  from  the  outset;  broadening, 
not  narrowing.  We  do  not  want  our  country  boys  to 
become  merely  efficient  farmers  who  have  learned  to  do 
certain  things  that  they  may  make  more  dollars.  We  want 
them  to  be  men  who  realize  the  larger  applications  of  the 
laws  and  principles  they  are  following,  men  who  see  and 
discriminate,  who  grasp  situations,  who  think  for  them- 
selves, and  who  have  an  abiding  interest  and  enthusiasm 
for  their  profession,  looking  upon  their  fields,  orchards, 
and  meadows  somewhat  as  laboratories  in  which  to  work 
out  experiments  to  the  end  that  they  may  do  their  work 
more  profitably  and  enjoyably.  We  wrould  have  them  men 
who  take  a  keen  pleasure  not  only  in  making  their  soil  more 
productive,  and  in  raising  better  crops  and  stock,  but  quite 
as  much  in  making  the  home  and  its  surroundings  and  the 
life  within  it  more  comfortable,  more  interesting,  and  more 
beautiful.  In  so  far  as  nature  study  does  not  contribute 
directly  to  these  ends  it  is  not  justified,  but  if  it  does  con- 
tribute to  them,  who  shall  say  "  it  is  not  sufficiently  related 
to  life"? 


CHAPTER   II 

THE  TRAINING  OF  THE   WORKING  TEACHER 

Need  for  Effective  Execution. — The  immediate  task  in 
the  development  of  nature  study  is  the  training  of  teachers 
to  use  it.     Principles  are  sufficiently  agreed  upon.     The 
need  is  to  put  into  actual  effect  what  we  already  know.  . 
There  is  plenty  of  undigested  inspiration  on  the  subject,  | 
but  not  very  much  effective  execution.     There  has  been^ 
enough  done  in  the  way  of  pointing  out  the  desirability  of) 
such  work.     Its  right  to  a  place  on  the  programme  is  suffW 
ciently  conceded.     But  the  potent  argument  which  superin- \ 
tendents  bring  against  allowing  it  that  place  is  that  teachers  i . 
are  not  sufficiently  well  trained  to  make  it  effective. 

The  too  ready  answer  to  this  objection  is  that  teachers  , 
can  become  trained  in  the  subject  only  by  trying  it.  In 
some  cases  in  which  they  have  been  allowed  to  try  it  the 
results  have  amply  confirmed  the  original  contention  of  the 
superintendent.  But  in  all  these  cases,  so  far  as  known, 
the  teachers  themselves  have  had  to  bridge  that  large  and 
troublesome  gap  between  general  inspiration  and  specific 
lessons.  The  most  difficult  part  in  the  construction  of  a  na- 
ture study  scheme  was  left  to  them.  It  was  very  nearly  a 
case  of  requiring  "bricks  without  straw."  The  results, 
save  with  the  exceptional  teacher,  should  not  surprise. 

Specific  Lessons. — The  point  appears  to  be  that  the 
"authorities"  have  failed  to  show  inexperienced  teachers 

5 


6  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

just  how  to  begin;  just  how,  step  by  step,  to  give  their  first 
lessons.  It  may  be  argued  that  to  outline  specific  lessons 
violates  the  ideals  of  nature  study  by  making  it  rigid  and 
formal.  But  rigidity  and  formality  are  not  so  characteristic 
of  these  lessons  as  is  definiteness,  and  perhaps  the  most 
serious  charge  brought  against  nature  study  is  that  it  is 
indefinite.  It  needs  to  be  shown  that  it  can  be  taught  in  a 
perfectly  definite  manner. 

However,  experience  makes  it  plain  that,  with  few 
exceptions,  nature  study  cannot  gain  a  footing  in  the 
schools  on  other  and  possibly  more  " ideal"  terms.  What 
the  untrained  teacher  must  have  before  she  can  make  a 
real  beginning  is  specific  lesson  plans  about  specific  familiar 
things.  These  suggestive  lesson  plans  must  be  grounded 
on  good  nature  study  principles,  but  they  should  lack  noth- 
ing in  definiteness  as  to  steps  to  be  taken  and  results  to  be 
achieved. 

Rousing  of  Latent  Interest. — To  train  in  a  new  subject 
teachers  already  busily  occupied  with  the  old  ones  is  a  task 
beset  with  difficulties,  but  it  is  encouraging  to  find  almost 
everywhere  teachers  eager  to  get  light  in  the  matter  as  op- 
portunity is  afforded.  And,  backed  by  such  interest,  the 
work  is  not  at  all  difficult. 

This  interest,  which  appears  to  be  persistent  and  in- 
creasing in  most  cases,  finds  some  explanation  in  the  fact 
that  the  subject  takes  a  grip  upon  the  teacher  quite  apart 
from  her  teaching  capacity  alone.  The  little  laboratory 
course  in  outdoor  work  which  constitutes  a  main  part  of 
the  training  appears  to  stimulate  latent  interests  which  fre- 
quently quite  forget  and  run  past  the  schoolroom.  Perhaps 
that  "latent  interest "  in  outdoor  things  is  the  naturalistic 


TRAINING   OF  THE  WORKING  TEACHER  7 

spirit  which  some  contend  to  be  as  universal  in  us  as  a 
stomach;  but  whatever  it  is,  it  gives  rise  to  an  enthusiasm 
for  country  conditions  and  to  a  vision  of  the  attractiveness 
of  nature  which  was  not  there  before;  a  thing  which  few  will 
dispute  to  be  a  valuable  asset  for  anyone,  and  especially 
for  the  teacher. 

Experimentation  with  Classes. — Also,  we  have  found 
that  working  teachers  make  decidedly  better  progress  in  a 
course  in  nature  study  method  than  do  students  in  the 
normal  school  who  are  not  engaged  in  practice  teaching. 
There  is  a  great  advantage  in  having  one's  own  class  for 
stimulus  and,  to  some  extent,  as  a  means  for  experiment. 

It  may  be  argued  that  the  usual  country  teacher  is  not 
to  be  trusted  with  "  experiments "  on  her  classes.  Some 
superintendents  object  to  nature  study  just  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  "  experimental."  They  are  willing  to  introduce  it 
when  more  definite  steps  of  procedure  have  been  deter- 
mined, but  they  seem  reluctant  to  let  their  teachers  help 
determine  what  these  steps  shall  be.  But  nature  study 
will  never  pass  the  "  experimental"  stage  in  one  sense;  at 
least  never  when  it  is  a  question  of  its  introduction  in  a  new 
locality.  That  must  always  involve  some  experimentation. 

In  the  same  connection,  what  shall  we  say  of  the  growth 
in  efficiency  of  teachers  who  are  given  no  opportunity  for 
some  such  educational  experimentation?  Is  there  any 
better  means  of  growth  than  the  trial  of  new  material  with 
successful  results,  results  for  which  the  teacher  can  take 
credit  to  herself  rather  than  ascribe  it  to  steps  laid  down 
by  another? 

However,  it  is  not  desired  to  make  claims  too  large.  It 
is  not  argued  that  nature  study  is  alone  among  subjects  in 


8  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

affording  opportunity  for  growth  in  efficiency,  or  that  the 
teacher  is  to  work  out  her  plan  for  it  by  experimentation 
only.  She  must  start  on  safe  and  certain  ground,  ground 
which  has  not  yet  been  any  too  clearly  mapped  out,  but 
she  must  soon  arrive  at  the  point  of  choosing  her  own  path. 
Nature  study  is  peculiar  in  requiring  such  divergence  from 
a  straight  course.  Its  content  must  be  as  various  as  en- 
vironments are  various. 

Encouragement  of  Initiative. — For  some  time  we  have 
sought  to  discover  what  method  is  most  serviceable  in 
training  working  teacher r  in  this  subject.  We  have  dealt 
with  average  conditions  and  average  teachers  in  city  and 
country  schools.  The  problem  has  been  mainly  one  of 
fitting  the  subject  to  the  teacher.  The  teacher  has  been 
the  starting  point  and  the  subject  the  goal.  The  most 
effective  part  of  a  course  so  worked  out  has  been  a  body  of 
lesson  outlines  upon  familiar  and  important  materials  of 
the  environment.  It  has  been  the  aim  to  make  these 
lessons  explicit  enough  to  insure  definite  results,  and  yet 
not  so  explicit  as  to  hinder  the  birth  of  the  teacher's  own 
initiative.  In  fact,  the  type  lessons  are  designed  as  a 
means  to  insure  properly  controlled  and  sustained  initiative 
rather  than  in  any  way  to  interfere  with  it. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  best  nature  study  teachers  we  find 
are  the  most  self-trained.  It  is  well  that  this  is  so,  for 
the  subject  will  not  wait  for  the  next  generation.  The 
demand  for  ability  to  teach  it,  especially  in  its  agricultural 
aspect,  is  too  insistent  and  too  widespread.  The  alert 
teacher  perceives  that  such  training  is  an  important  ad- 
dition to  her  working  capital,  and  to  the  capital  from 
which  she  can  draw  for  enjoyment  of  life  as  well.  In  so 


TRAINING   OF  THE  WORKING  TEACHER          9 

far  as  she  gives  thoughtful  attention  to  the  working  out  of 
lesson  plans  in  her  own  school,  she  will  be  taking  the  best 
part  of  a  course  in  nature  study  method.  She  may  be  fol- 
lowing a  rigid  outline  of  steps  at  first,  but  initiative  is  soon 
born  wherever  real  interest  and  persistence  are  present. 

Nature  Study  and  Biology. — The  conventional  ele- 
mentary courses  in  the  sciences  are  inadequate  for  training 
nature  study  teachers.  County  superintendents'  examina- 
tions include  botany  and  zoology,  but  all  the  rather  mis- 
cellaneous information  necessary  for  passing  them  helps 
but  little  in  grade  work.  It  is  common  to  meet  the  teacher 
who  says  she  has  tried  to  make  her  high  school  or  normal 
school  science  fit  the  case  of  nature  study  and  has  found 
that  it  does  not  fit  at  all.  Students  who  have  taken  botany 
and  zoology  may  be  scarcely  better  prepared  to  teach 
nature  study  in  the  grades  than  those  who  have  not. 
They  have  facts  enough,  but  little  conception  of  how  to 
use  them  to  fit  the  case;  in  fact,  they  are  in  constant  danger 
of  spoiling  the  whole  lesson  by  making  it  too  technical. 

The  difficulty  appears  to  be  that  even  high  school 
botany  and  zoology  are  taught  as  complete  sciences;  as 
systematic  courses  reviewing  large  bodies  of  organized 
knowledge.  But  nature  study  is  not  concerned  with  such 
organization  of  its  facts.  It  attempts  no  such  bird's-eye 
view  of  the  whole  field.  It  does  not  squeeze  its  facts  into  a 
system,  or  study  its  objects  according  to  a  uniform  labora-. 
tory  plan.  Each  object  reveals  a  plan  of  its  own.  It  is 
science  only  as  science  may  be  defined  as  a  certain  com- 
mon-sense method  of  coming  to  conclusions.  Here,  then, 
are  two  very  different  things,  and  training  in  one  hardly 
prepares  for  the  practice  of  the  other. 


10  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Nature  Study  Method. — To  meet  this  difficulty  a  course 
in  nature  study  method  appears  to  be  desirable,  and  the 
following  chapters  are  designed  to  furnish  a  guide  to  such 
a  course.  The  essential  part  of  the  course  itself,  how- 
ever, is  not  in  a  book,  but  is  in  the  handling  of  the  actual 
materials,  outdoors  or  in  the  schoolroom,  with  actual 
classes,  and  by  methods  in  which  the  immediate  condi- 
tions, rather  than  the  dictum  of  any  book,  will  be  taken  as 
guide. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE  MISSION   OF  NATURE  STUDY 

The  Purpose  in  View. — Before  undertaking  any  actual 
teaching  of  nature  study  it  is  well  to  consider  thoughtfully 
the  purpose  which  it  has  in  view.  If  this  purpose  seems 
desirable  and  attainable  a  stimulating  motive  for  the  work 
will  be  obtained.  In  the  writings  on  this  subject  various 
statements  as  to  its  purpose  are  found,  but  there  are  no 
very  essential  discrepancies  among  them.  The  differences 
are  rather  in  how  much  is  included  than  in  how  much  is 
excluded.  The  following  conception  of  purpose  is  of  the 
inclusive  type,  the  opinion  of  the  writer  being  that  the 
mission  of  nature  study  is  much  larger  than  it  seems  to  look 
to  many  who  have  written  about  it. 

Interest  in  Men  versus  Interest  in  Nature. — One  of  the 
tendencies  of  modern  civilization  has  been  to  increase  in- 
terest in  men  and  their  affairs  and  to  diminish  intelligent 
interest  in  nature.  The  former  is  much  to  be  desired,  but 
the  latter  is  to  be  deplored.  It  is  an  error  to  develop  one 
at  too  great  expense  to  the  other.  There  is  no  necessary 
connection  between  increased  interest  in  man  and  de- 
creased interest  in  nature.  This  condition  has  come  about 
from  the  fact  that  the  affairs  of  men  have  thrust  them- 
selves upon  our  attention  with  increasing  aggressiveness, 
while  the  affairs  of  nature  have  kept  in  the  background. 
One  mission  of  nature  study  is  to  induce  people  to  include 


12  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

among  their  other  interests  an  interest  in  the  affairs  of  na- 
ture in  addition  to  the  mere  dollars-and-cents  interest.  The 
result  will  be  the  introduction  into  life  of  an  influence  that 
is  restful,  pleasurable,  stimulating,  and  educative.  Con- 
versely it  is  claimed  that  lives  which  do  not  include  some 
intelligent  observation  of  nature  are  denied  something  of  the 
development  of  mind  and  of  character  which  life  offers, 
and  are  thereby  more  narrow. 

Yet  nature  study  is  in  no  sense  exclusive  of  man  and 
his  affairs;  in  fact  a  very  large  part  of  the  material  it  uses 
falls  in  this  category  as  roughly  separable  from  "wild" 
nature,  but  its  point  of  view  is  opposed  to  all  that  is  ex- 
clusively utilitarian.  It  takes  a  view  of  nature  from 
nature's  own  viewpoint  rather  than  from  that  which  ex- 
cludes all  but  the  cash  and  comfort  values. 

The  Point  of  Attack. — It  is  easy  to  state  the  situation, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  discover  the  methods  that  will  bring 
about  the  desired  change.  The  intelligent  observation  of 
nature  seems  very  desirable,  but  to  secure  it  under  the 
ordinary  limitations  of  the  schools  has  proved  to  be  one  of 
the  most  elusive  tasks  that  teachers  have  ever  undertaken. 
It  has  been  felt  that  the  most  hopeful  and  definite  field  of 
effort  is  with  the  children  of  the  grades,  for  they  are  teach- 
able, they  are  developing  their  intellectual  tastes  and  habits, 
and  they  will  presently  form  the  bulk  of  the  adult  population. 

It  does  look  as  though  the  problem  would  be  solved  if 
the  majority  of  these  children  should  discover  a  liking  for 
nature,  but  to  hope  too  much  for  such  a  result  is  visionary, 
for  many  things  stand  in  the  way. 

Obstacles. — Conspicuous  among  these  obstacles  is  the 
lack  of  teachers  trained  for  such  work  or  sufficiently  inter- 


THE   MISSION   OF   NATURE   STUDY  13 

ested  in  it,  the  lack  of  knowledge  obtained  from  sufficient 
experience  as  to  the  most  effective  methods  in  using  the 
materials  of  nature  study  with  children,  the  overcrowding 
of  classes,  and  a  generally  neutral  attitude  of  parents  with 
reference  to  it.  Thus  its  fulfillment  of  the  place  in  the 
educational  programme  which  is  sought  for  it  means  not 
merely  the  mandatory  introduction  of  the  subject  into 
the  grades,  but  also  it  means  interesting  adults,  training 
teachers,  and  conducting  numerous  experiments  as  to 
methods  and  materials.  The  children  may  be  expected 
to  give  the  largest  response  to  an  educational  effort  to 
stimulate  interest  in  nature,  but  also  the  appeal  must  be 
made  to  adults  who  may  not  have  silenced  completely  the 
"  call  of  the  wild  "  or  who  may  wish  to  hear  it  again.  In 
these  pages,  therefore,  while  the  presentation  is  to  those 
who  will  teach  nature  study,  the  application  is  also  to  be 
extended  to  all  who  influence  children  or  who  wish  valu- 
able contact  with  nature  for  themselves. 

A  Local  Study. — Nature  study  is  necessarily  restricted 
in  the  materials  it  uses  to  those  which  any  particular  environ- 
ment affords.  Hence  the  details  of  nature  study  courses 
must  differ  widely.  The  objects  of  nature  which  are  of 
especial  interest  in  one  community  may  be  entirely  lacking 
in  another.  In  one  community  the  outdoor  interest  may 
center  in  the  forest,  in  another  in  the  prairie,  in  another 
in  the  fields  and  gardens,  or  in  another  in  the  seashore. 
But  amid  these  widely  different  details  as  to  the  materials 
which  nature  study  uses  the  same  purpose  runs  and  the 
same  results  are  to  be  obtained.  It  is  this  great  variety  in 
the  details  that  baffles  many  teachers  who  are  more  ac- 
customed to  follow  directions  than  to  formulate  tfaqm. 


14  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

But  it  is  one  of  the  strong  arguments  of  the  advocates  of 
nature  study  that  it  is  a  subject  whose  very  nature  requires 
its  teachers  to  be  initiators  rather  than  imitators.  And 
a  teacher's  growth  in  efficiency  depends  in  part  upon  the 
compulsion  to  initiate  in  some  directions  rather  than  to 
imitate. 

Difficult  to  Teach. — Every  teacher  of  nature  study  should 
have  the  comfort  of  knowing  and  every  prospective  teacher 
should  have  the  warning  that  the  subject  is  a  difficult  one 
to  teach.  It  calls  for  more  of  originality  than  does  the 
teaching  of  sciences  in  the  high  schools.  It  demands  ac- 
quaintance with  the  local  material,  facility  in  using  it,  and 
flexibility  of  presentation  to  a  degree  not  dreamed  of  in 
those  orderly  laboratories  where  the  cut-  and-dr ied l '  sciences" 
hold  sway.  To  ask  such  work  of  unprepared  teachers  and 
to  demand  good  results  is  unreasonable.  It  is  not  strange 
that  failures  in  teaching  nature  study  have  been  numerous; 
it  is  rather  a  wonder  that  successes  have  been  so  frequent. 
Yet  this  fact  should  not  produce  a  feeling  of  unrest  or  dis- 
content with  the  subject  among  its  teachers;  rather  it 
should  give  confidence  in  the  virtues  of  the  subject  itself 
and  courage  to  continue  the  perplexing  and  ever-changing 
but  fascinating  task  of  its  successful  presentation.  If 
teachers  are  working  in  the  dark,  they  should  know  that 
this  is  still  somewhat  the  condition  of  teachers  of  the  sub- 
ject everywhere.  If  they  are  eager  for  the  light,  they 
should  know  it  will  come  chiefly  by  continuing  to  work 
patiently  and  thoughtfully.  No  one  can  rescue  them  ex- 
cept by  stimulating  their  own  persistent  effort.  There  are 
still  many  stumbles  to  be  made  in  nature  study,  but  every 
fall  shows  what  to  avoid  next  time. 


THE  MISSION  OF  NATURE  STUDY  15 

Variance  in  Definitions. — A  clear  definition  of  nature 
study  and  an  adequate  statement  of  its  purpose  have  been 
long  in  coming,  and  perhaps  have  not  yet  arrived.  But  its 
very  breadth  of  purpose  and  fundamental  importance  in 
education  may  be  cited  as  causes  of  its  non-definition  quite 
as  reasonably  as  vagueness  or  educational  impracticability. 
A  subject  which  some  easy  sentence  will  snugly  define 
has  limitations  in  education  of  equally  easy  definition. 
Protoplasm  and  creation  and  education  itself  are  equally 
lacking  in  adequate  definitions,  but  no  one  challenges 
their  fundamental  importance. 

Nature  study  seeks  to  supply  a  need  that  is  evident 
enough,  but  whether  it  actually  does  supply  it  as  yet  is  not 
so  evident.  We  find  statements  of  its  purpose  ranging  all 
the  way  from  the  cultivation  of  a  sentimental  love  for  nature 
to  training  in  habits  of  exact  observation  and  inference. 
When  there  is  added  to  this  confused  statement  of  purpose 
the  fact  that  the  subject  has  been  thrust  in  many  cases  upon 
unwilling  and  unprepared  teachers,  it  is  no  wonder  that 
it  has  been  regarded  by  many  as  an  indefinite,  inchoate 
thing,  the  despair  of  the  grade  teacher,  and,  till  recently 
at  least,  somewhat  of  a  joke  among  scientists.  Yet, 
though  its  beginnings  in  the  schools  may  not  have  been 
fortunate  in  the  majority  of  cases,  its  mission  is  so  distinct 
and  valuable  that  it  is  certain  to  outlive  many  a  bad  start. 

Helpful  Contact  with  Nature. — The  name  nature  study 
was  perhaps  not  a  happy  selection,  for  it  hardly  expresses 
the  idea  as  it  is  working  out,  but  like  many  another  name 
it  has  become  conventional,  and  so  will  serve  the  purpose. 
It  will  be  better  to  defer  the  selection  of  another  name 
until  the  thing  to  be  named  develops  more  definite  organ- 


1 6  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

ization.  But,  whatever  the  name  or  the  definition,  what 
is  entirely  agreed  upon  in  this  connection  is  helpful  contact 
with  nature,  and  what  finds  much  less  agreement  is  what 
kind  of  nature  contact  is  most  helpful. 

Nature  Study  a  Sentiment? — The  love  of  nature  is  a 
sentiment  that  seems  to  belong  to  all  healthy  minded 
people  who  revel  in  forest  and  stream  and  mountain  and 
sea  like  children  turned  out  for  a  holiday,  and  just  as  this 
sentiment  is  nurtured  by  experience  the  mind  will  retain  its 
healthy,  natural  tone.  But  if  this  were  all  that  is  meant 
by  "  helpful  contact  with  nature  "  the  mission  of  nature 
study  would  be  hardly  more  than  a  campaign  for  fresh-air 
outings.  Yet  the  delight  that  comes  from  being  immersed 
in  nature  as  one  is  immersed  in  air  is  an  essential  condition 
and  stimulus  for  nature  study  itself.  Such  love  of  nature 
must  be  awakened  or  nature  study  will  have  no  vitality, 
and  perhaps  this  is  as  far  as  some  will  go  or  can  go.  This 
is  fine  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it  is  not  nature  study.  It  is 
only  nature  sentiment. 

Nature  Study  a  Science? — At  the  other  extreme  of 
opinion  is  the  claim  that  nature  study  is  science.  Now  if 
science  is  held  to  mean  in  this  connection  method  rather 
than  matter  there  might  be  no  dispute  with  this  claim,  for 
science  as  a  "method  of  problem,  solving"  begins  even 
in  nature  study.  But  science  as  ordinarily  used  means 
organized  knowledge  in  reference  to  nature.  Such  claim 
would  mean  then  that  nature  study  is  composed  of  bits  of 
botany,  and  bits  of  zoology,  physics,  geology,  etc.,  for  these 
are  the  so-called  sciences. 

Any  such  organization  of  nature  study  would  defeat 
its  purpose,  for  it  is  knowledge  without  definite  organiza- 


THE  MISSION  OF  NATURE   STUDY  17 

tion,  nature  as  it  presents  itself  unanalyzed,  a  composite 
picture  of  the  sciences.  Whenever  the  study  of  nature 
enters  upon  organization  of  the  whole  and  the  pigeon- 
holing of  facts  in  some  general  system  it  becomes  science, 
and  in  our  usage  of  the  term  ceases  to  be  nature 
study.  The  sciences  are  all  bound  up  in  the  great  bundle 
of  nature,  and  their  dissociation  comes  sometimes  later 
in  one's  training,  but  in  the  training  of  most  it  does  not 
and  need  not  come  at  all.  Where  in  our  educational 
programmes  nature  study  shall  be  said  to  stop  and  science 
study  to  begin  is  a  question  not  primarily  related  to  this 
topic.  But  the  attitude  toward  nature  which  nature  study 
seeks  to  engender  would  suggest  that,  with  opportunity, 
nature  study  would  pass  into  science  as  naturally  as 
the  boy  into  the  man,  and  with  as  little  innate  need  for 
a  sharp  line  of  demarcation. 

Its  True  Place. — Between  sentiment  and  science,  there- 
fore, nature  study  must  find  its  place;  the  former  is  its 
atmosphere,  the  latter  may  be  its  successor.  Its  mission, 
or  at  least  its  opportunity,  is  nothing  less  than  initial  train- 
ing in  the  scientific  spirit,  which  when  found  in  men  who 
love  and  cultivate  nature  makes  of  them  what  were  once 
called  "  naturalists."  The  old-time  naturalist  has  almost 
disappeared  with  the  development  of  modern  science,  but 
his  spirit  is  the  spirit  of  nature  study.  To  cultivate  the 
scientific  spirit  in  contact  with  nature  is  to  obtain  a  distinct 
and  exceedingly  valuable  educative  result,  which  makes  of 
nature  study  much  more  than  the  cultivation  of  a  senti- 
ment. 

Educative  Result. — What  this  educative  result  means 
to  us  as  a  people  may  be  indicated.  The  test  of  teaching 


1 8  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

is  the  result.  As  one  examines  the  product  of  the  schools 
to-day  has  he  a  right  to  feel  satisfied?  The  essential 
feature  of  the  test  is  not  to  be  obtained  from  school  records, 
but  from  the  social  order.  Are  the  schools  contributing  to 
society  men  and  women  who  will  improve  it;  men  and 
women  who  are  not  only  sound  morally  but  also  intellectu- 
ally, and  who  have  wide  interests  ?  Have  the  schools  given 
us  men  and  women  incapable  of  becoming  victims  of  dem- 
agoguery,  of  superstition,  of  hallucinations  of  any  kind  ? 
It  has  seemed  to  many  that  our  educational  schemes 
lack  efficiency  in  just  this  direction;  and  that,  judged  by 
the  results,  we  have  not  hit  upon  just  the  form  of  training 
that  results  in  clear  thinking  and  the  prevalence  of  clean 
truth  among  the  greatest  number  of  adults. 

The  Opportunity. — Nature  study  has  the  opportunity 
to  develop  mental  steadiness  and  clear  thought  at  the 
very  beginning  of  education.  The  chief  troubles  connected 
with  doing  this  have  not  come  from  unprepared  teachers 
so  much  as  from  self-appointed  leaders  whose  books  and 
addresses  have  somewhat  befogged  and  belittled  the  situ- 
ation. Nature  study  is  much  easier  to  talk  about  than  to 
teach.  It  lends  itself  peculiarly  to  schemes  which  upon 
trial  prove  to' be  visionary.  It  represents  one  of  the  great- 
est problems  of  education,  and  it  will  not  be  solved  by 
schemes  imposed  upon  teachers,  but  by  the  teachers  them- 
selves attempting  to  work  out  in  a  practical  way  certain 
evident  principles. 

The  Dominant  Motive. — Before  teaching  nature  study 
in  the  grades  the  teacher  must  determine  its  dominant 
motive;  not  merely  its  incidental  advantages,  which  are 
numerous  enough.  In  suggesting  what  seems  the  ap- 


THE  MISSION   OF  NATURE   STUDY  19 

propriate  dominant  motive  that  must  determine  the  meth- 
od, we  are  at  the  parting  of  the  ways  where  opinions 
diverge.  However,  all  these  opinions  must  be  tested  in 
the  furnace  of  experience  before  any  one  of  them  can  be 
advocated  with  any  boldness. 

The  place  of  nature  study  in  elementary  education  is 
supplementary  to  what  may  be  called  the  conventional 
education.  The  latter  of  necessity  compels  attention  to 
certain  abstractions  of  language  and  of  numbers  that  are 
not  of  paramount  interest  to  the  pupil  at  the  time.  Any 
observation  of  young  children  shows  that  they  reach  out  to 
the  tangible  things  of  nature  about  them  with  eager  curios- 
ity. The  normal  child  is  evidently  born  with  what  may 
be  styled  tentacles  of  inquiry  by  which  he  relates  himself 
to  the  world  about  him.  It  has  been  observed  that  a 
strictly  conventional  education  tends  promptly  to  cause 
atrophy  of  these  tentacles  through  disuse,  and  when  later 
in  life  the  opportunity  for  work  in  science  presents  itself 
there  is  no  response,  for  loss  of  interest  has  followed  loss  of 
power. 

Tentacles  of  Inquiry. — An  actual  test  whose  results  are 
indicative  of  such  atrophy  of  these  native  tentacles  of 
inquiry  and  the  substitution  of  artificial  ones,  if  any,  may 
be  of  interest.  Spring  twigs  bearing  buds  were  given  to 
two  groups  of  children.  One  group  consisted  of  children 
just  entering  school,  the  average  age  being  six.  The  other 
group  consisted  of  children  with  six  years  of  school  ex- 
perience, but  with  no  nature  study.  Both  groups  were 
asked  to  sketch  what  they  saw.  The  results  were  sub- 
mitted to  an  outsider  to  separate  the  good  from  the  bad. 
This  was  done  without  difficulty  or  even  hesitation,  for 


20  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

some  were  free  and  expressive,  including  all  the  conspicuous 
features,  while  others  were  stiff  and  conventional  and 
omitted  several  of  the  conspicuous  features.  The  satis- 
factory sketches  were  all  by  the  six-year  old  pupils,  while 
all  those  made  by  the  twelve-year  old  pupils  were  deemed 
unsatisfactory.  The  latter  had  been  mutilated  for  six 
years  so  far  as  their  power  of  independent  observation  was 
concerned.  They  had  become  apparently  so  dependen 
upon  outside  authority  as  represented  by  teachers  and  books 
that  when  left  alone  they  were  at  sea  with  neither  chart 
nor  compass.  This  happened  to  be  an  extreme  case,  for 
some  pupils  always  retain  their  observing  powers  through 
their  own  initiative,  but  it  is  a  real  illustration  of  a  general 
situation. 

Later  Effects. — This  benumbing  effect  of  the  exclusively 
conventional  education  upon  the  natural  interest  in  ob- 
servation appears  to  have  much  to  do  with  the  small  pro- 
portion of  college  students  attracted  to  the  laboratories.  In 
colleges  where  some  laboratory  work  is  required  of  all 
students  it  is  painful  to  see  the  complete  inability  of  the 
majority  to  do  anything  at  all  without  the  most  explicit 
and  repeated  directions,  and  this  is  naturally  accompanied 
by  a  strong  feeling  of  aversion  for  such  work.  It  is  really 
the  worst  kind  of  drudgery  in  such  cases  to  develop  any 
semblance  of  the  initiative  with  which  most  of  them  were 
probably  born. 

Familiar  to  the  Child. — Nature  study  is  the  most 
familiar  face  that  greets  the  child  upon  the  threshold  of 
education.  It,  of  all  the  subjects,  should  serve  best  to  keep 
the  tentacles  of  inquiry  at  least  functional  during  the  neces- 
sary, preliminary,  conventional  period  of  education.  Per- 


THE  MISSION  OF  NATURE  STUDY  21 

haps  it  is  asking  too  much  at  present  to  permit  it  to  do 
more,  for  the  pressure  of  work  that  seems  more  necessary 
to  living  is  very  great,  but  it  must  be  given  an  opportunity 
to  keep  alive  the  powers  of  observation  and  of  questioning. 
If  this  is  not  done,  the  door  is  closed  upon  one  half  of  life, 
and  later  in  education  and  later  in  life  the  pupil  is  found 
to  have  been  robbed  of  both  opportunity  and  enjoyment; 
the  one-sided  beginning  continues  its  distorted  develop- 
ment to  the  end.  If  this  statement  of  purpose  be  sound, 
the  methods  of  nature  study  are  to  be  judged  by  their 
success  in  fulfilling  it. 

Additional  Benefits. — In  view  of  the  rather  modest  claim 
for  attention  made  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  the  pre- 
diction may  be  ventured  that  when  really  tried  nature 
study  will  be  found  perhaps  more  important  in  the  prepara- 
tion for  living  than  some  of  the  work  now  consuming  a 
large  amount  of  time  in  the  grades.  It  is  not  a  question 
of  contrasting  its  educative  value  with  that  of  other  sub- 
jects, for  they  all  are  able  to  show  good  reason  for  their 
present  place  in  the  curriculum,  and  it  has  a  stronger  claim 
to  place  than  could  be  established  by  any  such  process 
alone.  But  presently  it  comes  to  a  choice  among  values, 
and  we  believe  that  nature  study  will  not  be  found  among 
the  rejected  values.  It  is  too  fundamental  in  its  processes 
and  too  far  reaching  in  its  results  to  stay  among  the  in- 
cidentals of  elementary  education.  At  present,  however, 
it  must  demonstrate  its  value  as  compared  with  the  ac- 
cepted values,  and  must  be  content  with  only  such  an 
amount  of  time  as  will  make  the  test  a  fair  one. 

The  Test  of  Interest. — It  is  evident  that  the  test  of  suc- 
cessful nature  study  is  interest,  shown  by  the  child  who  is 


22  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

being  taught,  by  the  teacher,  or  by  adults  who  are  searching 
for  the  most  helpful  contact  with  nature.  However,  this 
is  not  all,  for  some  teachers  are  able  to  interest  children  in 
anything,  or  the  interest  may  be  spasmodic.  The  interest 
must  be  shown  in  important  things;  that  is  in  things  worthy 
of  interest,  knowledge  in  reference  to  which  is  a  valuable 
asset  in  one's  equipment.  Much  of  the  material  suggested 
for  nature  study  is  trivial.  It  may  or  may  not  be  made 
interesting,  but  in  any  event  it  is  valueless,  and  to  study  it 
means  going  through  the  motions  rather  than  doing  some- 
thing. Merely  to  observe  the  many  differences  in  the 
forms  of  leaves  or  in  the  colors  of  birds  or  butterflies  is  the 
I  observation  of  certain  facts  of  nature  truly  enough,  but 
/  such  facts  alone  are  as  barren  as  a  sand  bank.  It  is  like 
taking  bricks  and  putting  them  into  a  meaningless  pile 
rather  than  into  a  building  that  means  something  and 
abides.  The  test  of  interest,  therefore,  must  mean  inter- 
est in  important  things. 

Continuity. — Another  quality  which  must  be  apparent 
in  the  interest  is  continuity.  Occasional  interest  is  not  the 
real  thing,  for  it  disappears  as  difficulties  or  even  incon- 
veniences are  met.  The  interest  that  counts  is  willing  to 
contribute  time  and  labor  and  patience  for  the  sake  of 
what  they  bring.  This  is  the  difference  between  interest 
and  entertainment;  the  former  is  willing  to  endure  drudgery 
which  would  spoil  the  latter.  The  full  statement  of  the 
test,  therefore,  is  continuity  of  interest  in  important  things. 
It  is  almost  instinctive  among  teachers  with  formal 
training  in  methodology  to  demand  continuity  of  subject 
matter.  They  are  very  strenuous  about  one  thing  leading 
to  another  in  logical  sequence,  so  that  the  subject  as  a 


THE  MISSION  OF  NATURE  STUDY  23 

whole  may  have  a  beginning,  a  gradual  unfolding,  and  a 
conclusion.  .It  is  felt  that  this  is  the  only  way  to  "  com- 
plete a  subject."  This  is  really  an  indication  of  a  thought- 
ful teacher  and  is  to  be  commended  and  striven  for.  Too 
few  teachers  have  any  idea  of  sequence  and  progression  for 
us  to  criticise  those  who  do  have.  Yet  while  in  most  sub- 
jects this  may  be  the  effective  method,  it  does  not  apply  to 
the  study  of  nature,  which  begins  anywhere,  continues  in 
every  direction,  and  never  comes  to  any  conclusion.  Be- 
sides, the  continuity  we  are  after  in  nature  study  is  con- 
tinuity of  interest,  and  that  pertains  to  the  pupil  and  not 
to  the  subject.  The  warning,  then,  is  to  watch  the  child 
rather  than  the  subject. 

Adaptability. — A  teacher  of  nature  study  had  secured 
from  some  source  what  seemed  to  her  an  admirable  out- 
line for  her  school.  It  made  little  difference  whether  it 
was  prepared  for  her  neighborhood  or  not,  for  to  such  a 
teacher  an  outline  is  something  like  a  moral  law,  applicable 
anywhere.  This  logical  outline  was  followed  with  in- 
flexible faithfulness,  and  exercise  followed  exercise  like 
the  joints  of  an  articulate.  One  day  a  small  boy,  who  still 
retained  some  interest  in  nature  in  spite  of  his  teacher, 
brought  in  a  small  land  turtle.  He  was  not  merely  inter- 
ested, but  excited  and  bubbling  over  with  questions  and  a 
desire  to  show  his  prize.  However,  the  outline  called  for 
an  exercise  on  leaves  that  day,  an  exercise  that  fitted  with 
precision  into  the  previous  exercise  and  into  the  one  to 
follow.  So  the  leaves  were  examined  and  the  turtle  went 
out  of  the  window.  The  teacher  had  missed  an  important 
psychological  moment  so  far  as  turtle  study  was  concerned. 
She  was  watching  the  outline  rather  than  the  pupils. 


24  NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

The  School  Garden. — Wild  nature  is  in  many  respects 
the  ideal  laboratory  for  nature  study;  the  one  that  appeals 
most  to  those  with  the  nature  sentiment.  It  is  a  difficult 
laboratory,  however,  and  it  is  perhaps  best  approached 
and  interpreted  by  one  that  is  simpler  and  more  familiar. 
Besides,  those  who  have  not  developed  the  nature  sentiment, 
either  through  lack  of  its  possession  or  lack  of  opportunity, 
cannot  be  drawn  at  once  to  wild  nature  with  any  feeling 
of  interest.  For  these  another  introductory  appeal  is 
necessary  and  it  is  very  likely  to  be  through  the  near  by  and 
the  useful. 

The  phrase  wild  nature  implies  its  correlative  cultivated 
nature,  and  here  we  touch  human  experience  everywhere. 
The  plants  and  animals  that  man  has  brought  under 
cultivation  are  real  exponents  of  nature,  and  as  such  furnish 
proper  material  for  nature  study.  The  observation  of 
growing  corn  or  sweet  peas,  for  example,  reveals  the  same 
truths  in  reference  to  plant  structure  and  activity  that  are 
exhibited  by  their  wild  relatives.  In  fact  they  uncover  an 
even  wider  range  of  knowledge  and  suggestion,  for  plants 
under  cultivation  teach  impressively  the  most  obvious 
needs  of  plants,  since  these  must  be  supplied  by  the  ob- 
server. Moreover,  it  has  been  found  that  a  real  knowledge 
of  plants  comes  only  in  connection  with  their  cultivation. 
For  this  reason  the  modern  botanic  garden  is  established 
in  connection  writh  universities,  and  the  school  garden  is  its 
representative  in  the  schools.  The  care  and  observation 
of  a  few  plants  under  cultivation  open  one's  eyes  to  many 
essential  things  in  the  observation  of  wild  plants.  A  well- 
organized  school  garden  is  not  only  a  great  but  a  necessary 
interpreter  of  nature  as  exhibited  by  wild  plants. 


THE  MISSION   OF  NATURE   STUDY  25 

Aside  from  the  usefulness  of  plants  and  animals  under 
cultivation  as  interpreters  of  those  that  are  not,  they  also 
furnish  the  appeal  that  is  strongest  to  many.  To  such  per- 
sons a  field  of  wheat  or  a  bed  of  radishes  stands  for  some- 
thing worth  while,  and  any  knowledge  that  will  help  in 
their  culture  is  prized.  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  failing 
to  recognize  and  reckon  with  this  attitude  of  mind;  in  fact 
it  has  been  called  the  genius  of  the  age,  and  we  must  take 
people  where  we  find  them.  Such  a  point  of  view  must  be 
laid  hold  of  and  used  as  a  natural  introduction  to  an  interest 
that  is  larger  and  finer. 

Besides,  it  is  not  discreditable  to  possess  an  exclusively 
utilitarian  point  of  view;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  quite  hopeful. 
To  relate  nature  study  to  human  interests  is  sound  pedagogy, 
for  intelligence  in  what  relates  to  living  should  be  a  funda- 
mental in  education.  When  intelligent  living  has  been 
established,  there  wrill  come  to  many  the  leisure  and  the 
desire  to  enlarge  the  horizon,  and  to  surround  the  circle  of 
living  with  the  larger  circle  of  purely  intellectual  interests. 
This  means  that  there  is  a  field  of  nature  study  within  the 
circle  of  living,  and  another  beyond  it;  but  the  radius  of 
the  former  is  extended  naturally  into  that  of  the  latter. 

Summary  of  Educative  Results. — These  results  are  in 
addition  to  the  sentiment,  the  pleasure,  and  the  enlarged 
interests  that  come  from  nature  study  and  that  would  make 
it  very  worthy  of  attention  for  their  own  sake.  They  will 
not  follow  the  study  in  many  cases,  and  it  remains  to  be 
seen  through  experience  whether  they  follow  it  in  any  con- 
siderable number  of  cases.  However,  it  is  certain  that 
nature  study  is  capable  of  such  results  and  that,  too,  without 
forfeiting  any  of  the  others.  As  they  appear  to  be  far  the 


26  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

most  important  and  definite  results,  it  follows  that  they 
constitute  the  chief  motive  in  instruction  and  determine  the 
method.  Such  results  are  the  more  hopeful  when  they 
enter  into  the  intellectual  organization  of  children.  Some 
of  them  will  become  more  apparent  when  methods  of 
study  are  considered. 

A  sustained  interest  in  natural  objects  and  the  phenomena 
of  nature.  This  is  the  most  obvious  educative  result,  and 
is  really  an  opening  of  the  world  of  nature  to  that  kind  of 
joyful  appreciation  that  comes  to  students  of  the  world 
of  art,  of  music,  or  of  literature.  It  makes  life  richer  and 
far  more  varied  and  is  a  great  offset  to  the  narrowing  and 
artificial  tendencies  of  modern  life.  This  is  not  merely 
the  nature  sentiment  to  which  reference  has  been  made; 
it  is  rather  nature  appreciation,  which  comes  through  a 
certain  amount  of  knowledge  as  to  the  significance  of  things, 

Independence  in  observation  and  inference.  It  is  aston- 
ishing how  few  people  think  for  themselves  or  perhaps 
think  at  all.  The  world  is  full  of  second-hand  opinions, 
and  almost  any  vagary  seems  to  be  able  to  get  a  following. 
Nearly  everyone  has  learned  to  depend  upon  teachers  or 
upon  books  for  opinions,  and  "  authority,"  although  often 
unconsciously  followed,  is  depended  upon.  It  may  be 
the  authority  of  a  person,  of  an  organization,  or  of  a  con- 
vention, but  it  is  always  very  real.  The  whole  spirit  of 
nature  study  is  one  constant  protest  against  second-hand 
opinions,  against  any  bondage  of  the  book.  The  authority 
appealed  to  is  direct  observation,  and  the  inference  is  very 
cautious  until  repeatedly  tested.  It  is  an  attitude  of  mind 
that  first  demands  the  facts  and  then  suspends  judgment 
until  they  are  all  in.  Such  training  is  fundamental,  for 


THE   MISSION   OF  NATURE   STUDY  27 

no  one  possessing  it  will  be  likely  to  lose  his  intellectual 
balance. 

Some  conception  as  to  what  an  exact  statement  is.  Very 
many  people  are  unable  to  make  an  exact  statement,  chiefly 
because  they  are  in  no  mental  condition  to  do  so.  Their 
ideas  are  vague  and  hazy,  their  thinking  illogical,  and  their 
expression  wabbles.  Nothing  trains  in  clear  thinking  and 
expression  so  much  as  accurate  observation  and  descrip- 
tion, and  here  again  we  are  in  the  very  stronghold  of  nature 
study.  To  hew  expression  close  to  the  line  of  fact  may  not 
be  called  for  on  all  occasions,  as  in  familiar  conversation, 
which  cannot  degenerate  into  a  series  of  formulas,  but  in 
statements  of  fact  or  of  belief  it  is  demanded.  It  is  sur- 
prising and  gratifying  to  see  how  rapidly  young  children 
learn  to  hold  steadily  to  what  they  have  seen,  and  to  state 
it  without  exaggeration  or  verbiage.  It  is  a  good  habit  to 
learn,  and  to  learn  so  early  that  it  becomes  involuntary. 

Some  conception  o)  what  constitutes  proof.  This  is  the 
crying  need  of  the  men  and  women  of  to-day  who  make  and 
hold  the  most  impossible  connections  between  cause  and 
effect.  It  is  in  this  very  broad  field  that  charlatanism  of 
every  sort  flourishes  like  a  noxious  weed,  and  unless  this 
situation  is  changed  through  the  schools  the  dupes  will 
continue  to  multiply.  They  are  already  far  too  numerous 
for  our  good,  and  seem  to  be  increasing  in  number  in  spite 
of  increasing  education.  Nature  study  presents  unrivaled 
opportunity  for  training  in  proof,  for  it  is  found  that  a  single 
observation  is  rarely  trustworthy,  and  that  additional  facts 
are  apt  to  modify  the  conclusion.  The  spirit  of  nature 
study  is  necessarily  conservative  and  is  very  slow  to 
recognize  a  thing  as  proved,  for  it  is  compelled  so  often  to 


28  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

change  its  conclusions.  Whole  systems  of  belief  and  lines 
of  conduct  have  been  constructed  upon  a  basis  of  claimed 
fact  which  a  child  in  the  grades,  trained  in  nature  study, 
could  he  understand  the  terminology,  would  reject  without 
hesitation.  An  injection  of  such  children  in  large  numbers 
into  any  metropolitan  community  would  work  a  revolution. 
Such  are  the  results  that  appear  possible  from  well- 
organized  and  well-conducted  work  in  nature  study,  and, 
if  so,  its  greatest  mission  is  evident,  for  the  production  of 
independent  and  rational  individuals  is  what  society  needs 
to-day  more  than  anything  else. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Introductory. — Even  when  the  purpose  of  nature  study 
is  clear  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  there  are  numerous  pit- 
falls for  the  unwary.  They  may  be  very  readily  discerned 
by  visiting  schools  or  by  reading  books  that  are  serving  as 
guides  to  many  teachers.  The  earnest  work  of  teachers 
is  fully  appreciated,  but  if  earnestness  in  certain  things  seems 
to  be  misdirected  it  is  wise  to  call  attention  to  that  fact. 
Some  of  the  following  criticisms  may  develop  differences 
of  opinion  and  then  the  teacher  is  to  be  the  judge;  the 
justice  of  others  is  more  evident,  for  the  faults  referred  to 
are  very  far  from  the  real  purpose  of  nature  study. 

The  Teacher. — Here  lies  the  fundamental  danger  in  all 
teaching.  Methods  and  material  may  be  well  organized, 
but  the  teacher  is  able  to  make  them  ineffective.  This  is 
peculiarly  true  of  nature  study,  for  if  it  is  not  well  done  it 
is  worse  than  useless.  The  studies  long  established  in 
elementary  schools  are  so  well  organized  that  even  poor 
teaching  may  result  in  some  progress,  but  nature  study  is  in 
the  experimental  stage,  and  to  experiment  takes  initiative 
and  ideas.  As  a  consequence,  the  results  obtained  from 
nature  study  have  not  encouraged  its  introduction  or 
maintenance  to  so  large  an  extent  as  it  deserves.  It  has 
been  decried  as  a  fad  that  will  die  out,  as  a  thing  with  no 
educative  value,  as  an  impractical  and  nerve-racking  time- 

29 


30  NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

killer.  All  of  these  epithets  have  been  applied  to  it  by 
those  in  authority  in  the  schools,  and  by  parents;  and  it  is 
interesting  to  trace  the  cause  of  such  opinions.  It  is 
usually  found  that  such  criticism  is  founded  upon  the  work 
of  some  teacher  who  was  marking  time  rather  than  teach- 
ing. One  is  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  among  the  worst 
foes  of  nature  study  must  be  counted  many  of  its  teachers. 

It  is  often  urged  that  this  state  of  affairs  will  continue 
until  teachers  become  trained  for  this  particular  work.  It 
is  very  true  that  teachers  should  be  trained  in  nature  study, 
but  this  is  not  the  principal  thing.  University  repre- 
sentatives of  the  sciences  have  even  urged  an  amount  of 
general  knowledge  of  the  sciences  that  would  stagger  a 
university  instructor.  This  is  clearly  impractical,  for 
grade  teachers  cannot  obtain  so  extensive  a  training,  and 
if  they  can  they  will  no  longer  consent  to  be  grade  teachers. 

The  principal  thing  is  not  formal  training  in  teaching 
nature  study,  although  this  is  very  desirable;  or  a  university 
course  in  all  the  sciences  involved;  but  the  principal  thing  is 
the  spirit  in  which  nature  study  is  taught.  This  is  the  first 
thing,  and  training  and  knowledge  will  develop  through 
experience  and  wise  suggestion;  without  it,  no  amount  of 
training  and  knowledge  will  make  a  successful  teacher  of 
the  subject.  There  are  teachers  with  no  formal  training 
and  with  no  exact  knowledge  who  have  succeeded  in  de- 
veloping almost  ideal  courses  in  nature  study,  judged  by 
all  the  tests  we  know;  and  there  are  teachers  with  all  the 
formal  training  of  the  schools  who  could  not  "  make  it  go." 
To  catch  by  observation  the  qualities  of  an  effective  teacher 
is  like  trying  to  catch  a  personality.  For  such  a  one  no 
rules  can  be  formulated;  he  is  like  an  artist,  born  with  a 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY     31 

feeling  for  his  work.  We  simply  know  that  in  our  school 
machine,  at  the  points  of  application,  we  sometimes  get 
power  and  sometimes  none.  And  yet  there  are  certain 
obvious  things  about  a  successful  teacher  that  can  be  ob- 
served and  these  ought  to  be  helpful. 

The  most  obvious  thing  in  a  successful  teacher  of  nature 
study  is  an  enthusiasm  for  the  work,  and  enthusiasm  is 
one  of  the  most  contagious  things  in  the  world.  Moreover, 
the  enthusiasm  is  not  assumed,  but  real;  the  outward  ex- 
pression of  a  feeling  that  the  work  is  important  and  de- 
lightful. Without  this  feeling,  the  work  becomes  a  task 
rather  than  an  inspiration,  and  in  such  an  atmosphere 
nature  study  cannot  live.  Those  who  teach  this  subject, 
therefore,  must  feel  abundantly  encouraged  if  they  have  a 
real  love  for  it,  for  all  the  other  desirable  things  will  follow; 
but  if  they  look  upon  it  as  an  unspeakable  drudgery  from 
which  they  long  to  be  relieved,  they  should  consider  thought- 
fully the  purpose  and  principles  of  the  subject,  and  see 
whether  a  fuller  understanding  of  it  may  not  generate  a 
spark  of  enthusiasm  that  experience  can  fan  into  a  flame. 

Dead  Work. — This  means  that  insignificant  and  trivial 
things  are  selected  for  observation,  and  when  the  work  is 
done  there  has  been  no  real  gain.  This  is  a  very  common 
pitfall  even  for  the  enthusiastic  teacher,  but  it  is  almost  a 
sure  indication  of  the  perfunctory  one.  When  the  world  is 
full  of  important  things  to  be  observed,  and  when  observa- 
tion should  accumulate  a  body  of  useful  knowledge,  it  is 
fatuous  to  waste  time  and  energy  upon  trifles. 

Just  here  comes  a  serious  difficulty.  How  shall  teach- 
ers select  important  things  and  reject  trivial  ones  unless 
they  have  more  training  in  the  sciences  ?  It  does  not  take 


32  NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

as  much  training  to  make  such  selection  as  may  be  sup- 
posed. A  little  reading,  some  experience,  and  a  few  ques- 
tions directed  to  those  who  know  and  are  glad  to  help 
will  suffice.  Besides,  no  one  expects  every  selection  of 
material  to  be  wise;  even  in  university  laboratories  we  are 
doubtless  giving  much  attention  to  certain  things  that  will 
later  turn  out  to  be  of  trifling  importance.  The  best  that 
can  be  done  is  to  avoid  the  obviously  trivial  whenever  it 
becomes  obvious  to  the  teacher. 

There  are  teachers  honest  enough  to  recognize  and 
acknowledge  that  they  have  been  dealing  with  trifles.  They 
confessed  that  they  were  " marking  time";  trying  to  fill  the 
assigned  period  with  anything  that  occurred  to  them.  As 
a  salve  to  conscience  the  exercise  was  called  "  busy  work," 
instead  of  nature  study,  and  that  is  a  capital  name  for  all 
dead  work  in  nature  study;  work  which  keeps  the  pupils 
busy  even  if  they*  are  neither  interested  nor  profited. 
Classes  are  many  in  which  leaves  brought  in  day  after  day 
are  used  in  such  work,  presumably  because  they  are 
abundant  and  varied  and  can  fill  in  more  periods  than  any 
other  material ;  but  classes  are  still  rare  in  which  the  really 
important  things  about  leaves  are  observed. 

There  seems  to  be  an  impression  with  some  teachers 
that  the  most  important  things  to  observe  even  about  fa- 
miliar objects  are  those  things  most  unusual  to  the  pupil's 
experience.  The  fact  is  that  the  most  important  things 
are  the  most  obvious,  so  obvious  that  it  almost  seems  foolish 
to  call  attention  to  them.  They  are  so  common  to  the 
experience  of  everyone  that  they  do  not  seem  to  need  con- 
sideration. For  example,  who  does  not  know  that  leaves 
are  green?  But  why?  This  is  the  question  that  so 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


33 


universal  a  phenomenon  should  suggest,  even  if  it  remains 
unanswered  for  the  present.  Who  does  not  know  of  spring 
flowers  ?  But  what  does  this  very  common  habit  of  spring 
flowering  mean?  Nothing  is  more  obvious  than  that 
stems  grow  upward  and  roots  downward ;  but  why  ?  The 
seedling  multiplies  its  bulk  an  hundredfold;  but  whence 
and  how  have  come  the  materials  for  this  increase?  It 
may  be  almost  taken  as  a  rule  that  important  things  in 
nature  are  those  which  are  so  common  that  people  seem 
to  know  about  them  without  observation.  Some  teachers 
have  taken  a  whole  course  in  nature  study,  and  so  common 
were  the  phenomena  considered  and  so  simple  was  the 
presentation  that  they  claimed  to  have  learned  nothing, 
when  they  were  really  dealing  with  the  most  important 
materials  of  nature  study.  They  demanded  difficulty, 
rarity,  obscurity,  terminology;  and  getting  none  of  these 
things  they  were  as  disappointed  as  is  a  hypochondriac 
whose  physician  refuses  to  give  some  nauseous  medicine. 

Terminology. — There  appears  to  be  common  confusion 
between  " terminology"  and  "knowledge."  To  learn  the 
technical  name  of  an  object  seems  to  satisfy  the  intellectual 
desire  of  most  people  in  reference  to  it.  As  a  well-known 
botanist  said  in  reference  to  the  naming  of  plants,  once  so 
much  in  vogue  as  botany:  "  It  is  like  chasing  a  woodchuck 
into  his  hole;  one  has  only  the  hole  to  show  for  his  effort." 
A  technical  name  explains  nothing,  and  is  merely  a  neces- 
sary evil  and  necessary  only  to  specialists.  To  introduce 
technical  terminology  into  nature  study  is  as  much  out  of 
place  as  to  introduce  professional  training. 

With  observation  of  leaves,  which  seem  to  be  favorite 
objects  with  many  teachers,  the  frequent  result  is  merely  an 


34  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

ability  to  apply  the  terms  lanceolate,  ovate,  cordate,  etc,, 
to  the  proper  forms;  serrate,  dentate,  etc.,  to  the  proper 
toothing;  and  palmate,  pinnate,  etc.,  to  the  proper  veining. 
Such  work  is  often  done  seriously  and  with  the  idea  that  a 
knowledge  of  these  names  means  a  knowledge  of  the  leaf. 
If  a  technical  name  is  used  at  all  it  should  be  used  like  the 
name  of  an  individual;  useful  to  distinguish  the  individual 
upon  introduction,  but  by  no  means  implying  acquaintance. 
What  we  want  in  nature  study  is  not  a  series  of  introduc- 
tions merely,  but  an  increasing  acquaintance  and  fellow- 
ship. 

It  may  be  claimed  that  we  know  little  more  about  most 
things  than  the  names  we  have  given  them.  This  is  very 
true,  but  we  can  learn  to  ask  intelligent  questions,  which 
is  far  more  important  in  this  work  than  being  supplied 
simply  with  answers  to  questions.  The  method  is  more 
important  than  the  matter.  This  is  the  attitude  of  mind 
that  nature  study  should  cultivate,  rather  than  the  idea 
that  a  name  is  the  end-all.  That  leaves  vary  in  form, 
toothing,  and  venation  is  very  evident;  and  it  is  a  good 
thing  to  impress  this  fact  and  the  range  of  variation.  The 
end  of  all  this,  however,  is  not  to  apply  names  to  the  varia- 
tions, but  to  suggest  the  question  as  to  what  all  this  variation 
means  in  the  life-work  of  the  plants.  To  be  able  to  ask  in- 
telligent questions  is  after  all  about  the  best  we  can  do  in  the 
present  state  of  knowledge  in  reference  to  nature. 

Factitious  Interest. — This  means  that  use  of  playful  and 
imaginative  devices  for  securing  an  interest  that  the  real 
object  is  supposed  to  lack.  Here  is  where  the  majority 
of  books  on  nature  study  get  in  their  deadly  work,  with 
their  personifications  and  romances.  We  sometimes  find 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY     35 


so-called  nature-study  exercises  which  consist  of  the  ex- 
hibition of  a  flower  or  even  a  bird  and  the  quotation  of 
poetry  about  it.  This  may  be  a  charming  way  of  making 
literature  more  realistic,  but  it  does  not  hold  relationship 
With  the  nature  study  here  in  mind.  We  may  find  this 
process  called  the  correlation  of  nature  study  and  literature. 
But  such  devices  repel  rather  than  attract  strong  children, 
just  as  does  the  foolish  and  forced  sprightliness  of  manner 
of  many  primary  teachers.  The  truth  itself,  when  dis- 
cerned clearly,  is  always  attractive,  and  we  cannot  afford 
to  play  fast  and  loose  with  it. 

Just  here  we  find  large  diversity  of  opinion,  for  this  kind 
of  instruction  has  become  so  engrafted  upon  nature  study 
that  to  many  it  seems  to  be  essential.  Besides,  the  method 
referred  to  obtains  results  that  are  really  desirable,  for  it 
interests  and  stimulates  many  and  certainly  feeds  the  im- 
agination. The  only  criticism  is  that  it  is  not  nature  study. 
It  is  simply  using  the  facts  of  nature  as  starting  points  for 
flights  of  fancy.  It  shifts  the  interest  from  nature  to  a 
figment  of  the  imagination  which  does  not  and  cannot  exist 
in  nature.  It  introduces  points  of  view  that  result  in  de- 
ceptions and  even  hallucinations,  and  it  is  improperly 
labeled  nature  study.  Rather  it  is  "  nature  fancy,"  and 
perfectly  unobjectionable  when  rightly  named. 

The  race  of  so-called  " nature  fakirs"  thrives  in  thte 
atmosphere.  They  weave  their  nature  fancies  with  great 
skill,  and  their  writings  are  very  seductive.  We  acknowl- 
edge and  enjoy  their  charm,  but  when  they  pose  as  inter- 
preters of  nature  they  are  to  be  denounced  as  frauds.  Let 
it  be  understood  that  all  this  criticism  has  to  do  only  with  a 
proper  label — a  label  that  shall  fairly  represent  the  content. 


36  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

Does  this  mean  that  instruction  in  nature  study  must 
be  as  exact  and  colorless  as  a  mathematical  formula  ?  By 
no  means;  but  it  does  mean  that  no  teaching  device  shall 
divert  attention  from  the  real  truths.  Every  bit  of  color 
and  glow  that  can  be  made  to  play  about  these  truths  is  not 
only  legitimate  but  extremely  desirable.  This,  however,  is 
merely  good  teaching,  and  comes  naturally  to  teachers  who 
have  the  ability  to  interest  children.  To  make  nature  live 
is  one  thing;  to  make  the  imagination  lively  and  even  wild 
is  quite  another.  We  may  contrast  the  actual  cases  of  two 
teachers,  each  telling  the  story  of  the  winter  bud  and  its 
awakening  in  the  spring,  and  each  holding  the  rapt  atten- 
tion of  the  class.  One  told  of  a  sleeping  princess  guarded 
by  wonderful  coverings,  of  the  coming  of  the  spring  fairy, 
of  the  gradual  awakening,  and  of  the  unfolding  into  full 
beauty.  The  other  introduced  no  princess  or  fairy,  but 
spoke  of  the  bud  as  a  part  of  the  plant,  of  the  danger  that 
comes  with  the  winter,  of  the  way  the  danger  is  met,  of 
the  new  conditions  that  come  with  the  spring,  of  the  unfold- 
ing leaves,  and  of  the  preparation  for  a  season  of  service. 
The  pupils  of  the  former  were  attracted  by  the  princess  and 
the  fairy ;  those  of  the  latter  by  the  structure  and  significance 
of  the  bud.  No  one  should  hesitate  to  decide  which  of  these 
two  teachers  was  teaching  nature. 

Unwarranted  Inferences. — It  is  astonishing  how  many 
teachers  feel  under  compulsion  to  explain  everything, 
when  as  yet  most  things  cannot  be  explained.  Perhaps 
this  arises  from  an  anxiety  lest  their  pupils  regard  them 
unfit  for  their  work.  The  inferences  heard  and  read  in 
connection  with  nature  study  are  wonderful.  The  wildest 
guesses  as  to  the  meaning  of  things  are  made,  when  the 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY     37 

teacher  or  writer  must  be  conscious  of  utter  ignorance  in 
reference  to  the  matter,  or  is  singularly  self-deluded. 

The  " nature  fakir"  is  the  prince  of  nature  explainers. 
Even  if  his  observations  are  to  be  relied  upon,  which  is  far 
from  true  in  every  case,  his  explanations  are  usually  beyond 
all  reason.  Especially  deceptive  is  the  explanation  that 
involves  attributing  to  plants  and  to  the  lower  animals  the 
consciousness,  and  motives,  and  methods  of  human  beings. 
More  or  less  of  this  idea  is  implied  in  the  terminology  we 
use,  for  we  have  developed  no  other  for  common  use;  but 
it  is  not  used  with  the  deliberate  intention  of  attributing 
human  powers  to  low  organisms.  The  spines  on  a  cactus 
are  very  serviceable  in  protecting  it  from  grazing  animals, 
but  to  teach  that  the  cactus  invented  spines  to  use  for  this 
purpose  is  to  teach  an  untruth.  In  this  case  it  happens 
that  the  cactus  grows  chiefly  where  there  are  no  grazing 
animals  to  molest  it,  and  that  its  spines  were  produced  of 
necessity  and  not  from  choice;  and  this  may  be  taken  as  a 
fair  sample  of  all  the  wonderful  and  deliberate  "  inven- 
tions" of  plants. 

There  is  an  opinion  current  that  everything  in  nature 
is  perfectly  adapted  to  its  surroundings,  and  perhaps  this 
belief  explains  the  feeling  of  compulsion  to  explain. 
Evidently  many  have  not  thoughtfully  considered  what 
perfect  adaptation  would  mean.  It  would  mean  absolute 
stagnation;  while  lack  of  adaptation  means  progress. 
Plants  and  animals  are  doing  as  well  as  possible  under  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed,  but  in  general  they 
are  changing  and  are  far  from  being  perfectly  adapted  to 
environment.  In  fact  the  whole  question  of  adaptation  is 
to-day  an  open  one  among  biologists  and  no  weaker  point 


38  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

has  been  found  in  certain  theories  of  evolution  than  the 
assumption  that  all  things  in  nature  have  or  have  had  a  use 
and  we  need  be  but  sufficiently  clever  in  order  to  discover 
it.  Since  we  are  agreed  that  a  child's  interest  should  not 
be  bought  by  trifling  with  truth,  all  statements  that  plants 
or  animals  have  certain  structures  or  habits  for  certain 
specific  purposes  are  to  be  avoided  as  dangerous.  Such, 
for  example,  would  be  the  statement  that  flowers  have 
odors  and  colors  and  nectar  in  order  to  attract  insects. 
These  characteristics  may  attract  insects  truly  enough,  but 
the  form  of  statement  should  be  rather  that  flowers  do  have 
such  characteristics  and  that  insects  do  come  to  them. 
£The  purpose  idea  has  been  greatly  overemphasized.  Such 
instances  come  up  in  nearly  every  lesson,  and  the  continu- 
ous attribution  of  design  as  behind  and  precedent  to  the 
facts  observed  will  form  a  fundamentally  misleading  habit 
of  thought.  The  teacher,  therefore,  must  be  content  to 
observe,  to  explain  what  is  evident,  to  leave  most  things 
unexplained,  to  ask  questions,  to  find  failures;  in  short,  to 
ttake  nature  as  a  great  book  of  truths  and  of  puzzles.  To 
leave  the  impression  that  all  things  are  understood  would 
be  the  worst  possible  result. 

Sentimentality. — This  has  been  referred  to  in  the  previ- 
ous chapter,  but,  as  a  danger,  it  needs  additional  emphasis. 
It  is  hard  to  make  this  criticism  clear,  for  a  certain  kind  of 
sentiment  in  reference  to  nature  is  not  only  desirable  but 
necessary  if  there  is  to  be  success.  But  sentimentality  is 
something  quite  different;  it  is  a  state  of  feeling  rather  than 
a  state  of  intelligence.  It  has  the  effect  of  blunting  keen 
observation,  for  it  responds  to  the  total  effect  of  wild  nature 
as  to  a  general  stimulus,  rather  than  as  a  book  to  be  read. 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY     39 

Such  feeling  is  delightful,  and  the  possessor  ;s  fortunate  in 
having  an  additional  attraction  to  nature  study.  What  we 
are  after,  however,  is  not  so  much  a  feeling  as  a  state  of 
mind  that  compels  observation,  that  is  interested  in  the 
meanings  of  things,  that  is  cautious  in  drawing  conclusions, 
that  is  making  continual  progress.  Sentimentality  may 
degenerate  into  mawkishness,  a  kind  of  dreamy,  unreal 
association  of  ideas  that  is  ineffective  and  mentally  ener- 
vating. There  is  probably  too  much  sentimentality  in 
education  now,  or,  perhaps  better,  too  little  of  its  converse. 
If  nature  study  is  to  intensify  this  tendency  it  had  better 
not  be  introduced,  but  if  it  can  be  used  to  correct  it,  it  had 
better  be  introduced  at  once  everywhere. 

It  has  been  attempted  to  show  that  nature  study  can 
produce  clarity  of  vision,  exactness  of  statement,  definite- 
ness  of  conclusion;  in  short,  the  most  practical  qualities  for 
successful  living.  If  it  can  do  all  this  it  would  seem  a 
perversion  to  use  it  to  increase  the  materials  for  mawkish 
sentimentality.  The  association  of  nature  study  with 
poetic  literature  is  probably  largely  responsible  for  foster- 
ing sentimentality  as  opposed  to  knowledge.  Because  a 
great  poet  has  mentioned  a  yellow  primrose,  does  the 
quotation  from  him  illuminate  any  fact  of  nature?  The 
primrose  might  illuminate  the  quotation,  but  that  is  a  study 
of  literature,  not  of  nature.  The  introduction  of  this 
method  was  natural,  for  it  seemed  to  give  to  nature  study 
a  very  powerful  ally,  but  the  relations  have  been  developed 
in  such  a  way  that  it  looks  like  an  alliance  between  a  lion 
and  a  lamb.  This  is  no  criticism  of  poetic  literature,  nor  of 
the  attempt  to  make  it  live  by  seeing  the  objects  it  mentions; 
both  appeal  to  the  finest  that  is  in  us;  but  it  is  a  criticism  of 


40  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

the  attempt  to  make  it  engulf  nature  study  which  has  a  very 
distinct  mission  of  its  own.  The  advice  is,  therefore,  to 
change  the  atmosphere  in  passing  from  such  literature  to 
nature  study,  like  the  physician  when  passing  from  the 
joys  of  social  life  to  the  study  of  some  difficult  case.  The 
former  gives  the  emotions  play,  the  latter  demands  mental 
poise.  This  does  not  mean  coldness,  for  it  involves  en- 
thusiasm; but  it  does  mean  a  totally  different  attitude  of 
mind.  It  is  the  cultivation  of  both  of  these  sides  of  life 
that  is  sought.  Each  needs  the  other  as  its  complement, 
and  neither  alone  makes  the  most  effective  life.  Let  litera- 
ture continue  to  do  what  it  has  been  doing  most  effectively, 
but  let  nature  study  also  show  what  it  is  able  to  do. 

Book  Dependence. — Under  this  title  I  mean  to  include 
all  dependence  upon  authority,  whether  it  is  literally  a 
book  or  some  teacher.  Respect  for  the  opinions  of  those 
who  are  in  a  better  position  to  know  should  be  enforced 
strongly  at  every  stage  of  education,  but  this  does  not  mean 
the  suppression  of  all  initiative,  the  possession  of  only 
second-hand  opinions.,  It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that 
ordinary  school  methods  enforce  intellectual  dependence 
upon  many  teachers  as  well  as  pupils.  Leaning  upon 
authority  is  a  deadly  habit,  easily  acquired  and  broken 
with  great  difficulty.  If  an  offset  for  it  can  be  discovered, 
it  is  certainly  desirable. 

Such  an  offset  may  be  provided  by  nature  study,  unless 
it  is  used  to  enforce  still  more  the  habit  of  dependence. 
Does  it  not  furnish  the  main  opportunity  in  early  education 
to  break  the  shackles  of  the  book  ?  When  observations 
are  being  made,  the  things  seen  are  to  be  recorded  and  not 
the  things  that  ought  to  be  seen  as  stated  by  book  or  teacher. 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY     41 

The  variations  in  nature  are  so  endless  that  no  record  has 
kept  track  of  them,  and  this  is  one  of  the  beauties  of  nature 
study,  for  it  can  be  told  easily  whether  one  is  really  observing 
or  only  following.  As  an  instance  may  be  cited  an  exercise 
in  which  the  teacher  had  distributed  some  seeds  for  ex- 
amination. Among  other  directions  was  one  calling  for 
the  observation  of  the  two  coats  (the  directions  said  "  in- 
teguments"!). All  found  them  except  one  boy,  and  the 
teacher  informed  the  visitor  that  he  was  always  giving  her 
trouble,  repeatedly  failing  to  see  according  to  directions. 
In  this  case  the  boy  could  find  only  one  coat,  and  insisted 
that  to  get  two  coats  this  one  would  have  to  be  split.  It 
happened  that  the  boy  was  right.  The  teacher  had  learned 
from  some  book  that  seeds  have  two  integuments,  and 
therefore  two  must  be  observed.  This  is  not  an  example 
of  a  useful  exercise,  but  merely  an  instance  of  misplaced 
use  of  authority. 

The  fact  is  that  technical  exactness  in  observation  is 
not  necessary  in  nature  study.  It  demands  such  observa- 
tions as  are  obvious  to  eyes  and  minds  interested  in  nature, 
but  not  the  observations  of  those  professionally  trained. 
Technical  exactness  at  this  stage  of  one's  contact  with 
nature  kills  interest;  the  chief  thing  is  to  secure  genuine 
observation,  and  it  is  better  to  give  this  free  rein,  quite 
independent  of  authority.  The  habit  of  looking  into  the 
facts  for  oneself  is  one  that  cannot  be  acquired  too  early, 
and  it  should  be  cultivated  steadily,  as  an  offset  to  the  in- 
tellectual dependence  inevitably  developed  in  the  teaching 
of  certain  other  subjects. 

Outlines. — There  is  a  very  general  demand  from  teach- 
ers for  outlines.  This  point  has  been  previously  touched 


42  NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

upon  but  it  needs  to  be  included  again  in  any  category  of 
dangers.  As  a  rule  the  inexperienced  teacher  feels  more 
or  less  at  a  loss  and  grasps  at  every  straw  of  help;  books, 
magazines,  lectures,  or  summer  courses;  and  running 
through  it  all  appears  to  be  the  hope  of  securing  a  precise 
outline  of  the  work  to  be  done. 

All  outlines  and  all  uses  of  outlines  are  not  to  be  in- 
cluded in  one  sweeping  condemnation,  but  they  introduce 
a  danger  that  may  be  fatal.  It  is  rare  to  find  a  proper 
outline  or  an  outline  used  properly. 

Yet  a  plan  is  deemed  necessary  for  the  most  effective 
work.  But  an  effective  outline  must  be  very  flexible.  It 
should  be  a  series  of  suggested  possibilities  rather  than 
of  rigid  prescriptions.  It  must  adjust  itself  to  seasonal 
fluctuations,  to  daily  changes  of  weather,  to  the  chance  find 
in  the  field  or  material  brought  in,  and  always  it  must 
be  specially  written  for  the  local  conditions.  And  so  it 
becomes  amorphous  to  the  degree  that  it  nearly  ceases  to 
be  an  outline  at  all.  It  has  few  definite  lines  of  structure 
and  many  alternative  lessons.  It  nominates  more  topics 
than  can  be  covered,  for  many  may  not  be  available  in 
certain  seasons.  It  provides  on  the  same  days  lessons  for 
rain  and  lessons  for  shine,  and  just  so  surely  as  the  teacher 
approaches  the  ideal  the  need  for  any  such  outline  van- 
ishes save  only  to  prevent  the  trespass  of  one  grade  upon 
the  general  premises  of  another.  But  withal  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  with  things  as  they  are  with  teachers'  prep- 
aration good  outlines  sanely  used  are  altogether  useful  in 
practical  nature  study. 

An  outline  constructed  by  the  teacher  is  a  good  thing. 
It  may  not  be  a  good  outline,  but  it  is  the  organized  ex- 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


43 


pression  of  the  teacher's  thought  as  to  the  possibility  of  the 
subject  in  that  particular  school.  It  is  an  evidence  of  in- 
dependence, which  means  that  the  outline  will  be  modified 
for  the  better  as  experience  increases. 

An  outline  obtained  from  a  successful  teacher  is  also  a 
good  thing.  It  will  be  a  good  outline,  not  to  follow,  but 
to  study.  One  may  catch  from  it  the  principles  involved, 
the  spirit,  the  methods,  and  the  sort  of  material  that  has 
proved  successful.  It  will  probably  enable  another  teacher 
to  make  his  own  outline  better,  but  there  is  always 
the  temptation  to  "crib  bodily"  and  be  done  with  the 
trouble. 

No  outline  is  altogether  good  except  one  that  is  made 
with  special  reference  to  the  particular  teacher  and  to  the 
neighborhood  of  the  particular  school.  That  nature  study 
is  peculiarly  a  local  study  cannot  be  emphasized  too  fre- 
quently. It  is  for  this  reason  that  any  outline  must  be 
constructed  by  the  individual  teacher  and  not  for  teachers 
in  general.  But  when  this  home-constructed  outline  has 
been  completed,  even  it  becomes  a  danger  if  it  is  followed 
too  rigidly.  It  is  a  general  guide,  but  it  cannot  be  a  day- 
by-day  guide.  It  is  impossible  to  foresee  all  the  shifts  that 
good  teaching  will  demand.  There  will  come  the  especially 
appropriate  moments  for  different  material  or  for  arousing 
new  interests  of  the  pupils  or  for  new  methods  of  presenta- 
tion, any  one  of  which  may  for  the  moment  cast  the  outline 
to  the  winds.  Just  as  to  certain  speakers  there  come 
moments  of  inspiration  through  the  act  of  speaking,  so  to 
teachers  there  come  sudden  inspirations  in  the  act  of  teach- 
ing. These  should  be  seized  upon  at  once,  used  without 
reference  to  a  programme,  and  recorded  for  future  use. 


44  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

When  an  outline  becomes  filled  up  with  the  records  of  such 
experiences,  it  becomes  very  much  more  valuable. 

The  worst  phase  of  the  outline  danger,  however,  is  the 
use  of  a  borrowed  one.  This  means  that  a  scheme  of  work 
constructed  for  one  neighborhood  is  applied  to  another, 
and  it  can  hardly  fail  to  be  somewhat  a  misfit.  The  school 
of  a  teacher  in  the  Central  West  was  visited.  The  town 
was  small  and  surrounded  almost  completely  by  a  mag- 
nificent forest.  In  her  eager  search  for  instruction  and  an 
outline  for  nature  study,  the  teacher  had  gone  far  afield, 
attending  a  summer  course  given  on  the  Atlantic  coast  and 
securing  an  Atlantic  coast  outline.  On  the  day  of  the  visit 
the  class  was  observing  seaweeds!  They  had  been  ob- 
tained, with  great  trouble,  from  the  fish  market  of  a 
neighboring  city,  being  the  sad  and  broken  sort  of  sea- 
weeds that  come  as  packing.  They  were  slimy  and  form- 
less masses,  entirely  foreign  to  the  experience  of  every  child 
in  the  class,  or  of  any  fortunate  child  anywhere.  But  sea- 
weeds were  in  the  outline  and  so  they  must  be  observed ; 
and  in  this  same  outline  there  was  not  a  single  tree  or  forest 
^study,  the  most  conspicuous  material  of  the  neighborhood ! 
This  is  an  extreme  illustration,  but  it  is  a  true  one.  The 
contrast  of  regions  may  not  be  so  striking  in  every  case,  but 
the  same  lack  of  fitness  may  easily  appear  when  a  borrowed 
outline  is  used. 

Conclusions. — All  the  dangers  enumerated  above  can- 
not be  avoided  at  every  moment  of  one's  progress.  The 
chief  thing  is  to  recognize  them  as  dangers,  and  to  eliminate 
them  as  rapidly  as  possible.  A  thoroughly  good  course  in 
nature  study,  one  that  includes  all  the  advantages  and  avoids 
all  the  dangers,  is  a  thing  of  slow  construction;  and  per- 


THE  DANGERS  OF  NATURE  STUDY     45 

haps  it  is  impossible  of  construction  as  yet.  It  is  not  a 
question  only  of  what  material  is  available,  it  is  a  ques- 
tion also  of  what  material  has  valuable  significance  and 
of  what  appeals  to  the  children.  To  select  appropriate 
material  from  available  material  is  the  work  of  the  teacher 
who  is  experimenting  with  the  children.  No  earnest 
teacher  of  nature  study  need  feel  discouraged,  for  those  who 
write  and  lecture  and  suggest  are  more  dependent  upon  the 
teachers  than  the  teachers  are  upon  the  "  authorities." 


CHAPTER    V 

THE  PRINCIPLES   OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Introductory. — The  title  of  this  chapter  may  be  mis- 
leading, but  it  is  a  convenient  one  to  cover  certain  general 
suggestions  which  deal  with  principles  as  contrasted  with 
details,  and  are  applicable  to  any  detail  of  location  and 
material.  Such  principles  are  of  course  more  clearly 
developed  in  connection  with  details,  and  these  general 
statements  lack  something  of  force  until  they  are  applied 
in  the  series  of  suggestive  studies  in  Part  Two. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  the  reader  was  left  with  a  series 
of  things  forbidden,  which  to  some  may  have  seemed  to 
include  everything  done  in  nature  study.  Unless  something 
can  be  substituted  only  damage  has  been  done;  criticism 
is  of  no  avail  unless  it  includes  constructive  suggestion. 
Of  course  things  forbidden  imply  that  the  converse  is 
desirable,  and  what  is  said  in  the  following  pages  has  been 
implied  in  the  preceding  ones.  However,  there  is  advan- 
tage in  a  series  of  positive  statements.  It  must  be  kept  in 
mind  that  these  are  only  suggestions,  but  they  are  derived 
from  long  experience  in  teaching  observational  subjects, 
and  effective  methods  for  securing  independent  observa- 
tion find  general  application  at  every  educational  level. 

Objects  of  Common  Experience. — Often  the  greatest 
puzzle  to  the  inexperienced  teacher  is  the  selection  of 
material.  Since  this  must  be  done  for  each  neighborhood, 

46 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF  NATURE   STUDY          47 

direction  must  take  the  form  of  general  principles  ap- 
plicable to  any  region.  The  fundamental  principle  is  to  se- 
lect the  natural  objects  of  most  common  experience — those 
that  thrust  themselves  upon  the  observation  of  everyone. 
For  example,  in  a  wooded  region  no  natural  object  is  more 
common  than  a  tree,  and  in  every  region  trees  are  at  least 
associated  with  parks,  or  streets,  or  dwellings.  It  happens 
that  tree  studies  call  for  somewhat  special  treatment,  es- 
pecially with  lower  grades,  but  they  are  not  to  be  avoided 
on  that  account.  Tree  studies  are  discussed  as  a  topic  in 
Part  Two.  In  an  agricultural  region  the  prominent  crops 
are  most  conspicuous,  and  in  every  region  the  common 
garden  plants,  useful  and  ornamental,  are  available. 
Everywhere  there  are  the  insects,  and  domestic  animals, 
and  some  birds,  and  simple  physical  materials  in  abun- 
dance. It  is  often  useful  to  discover  the  experiences  of  the 
pupils,  making  a  list  of  the  natural  objects  that  have  at- 
tracted their  attention,  and  taking  advantage  of  these  con- 
tacts for  a  beginning.  Naturally  the  conspicuous  objects 
in  many  neighborhoods  are  much  alike  in  a  general  way, 
and  an  outline  for  one  school  may  be  fairly  applicable  for  a 
neighboring  school,  but  there  are  always  differences  in 
detail  to  be  provided  for.  For  example,  while  trees  wrill 
doubtless  be  included  in  most  outlines,  the  conspicuous 
and  easily  available  trees  of  different  regions  are  apt  to 
differ  widely. 

In  addition  to  neighborhood  differences  in  material, 
there  are  neighborhood  differences  in  the  experiences  of 
pupils.  The  country  child  or  village  child  is  apt  to  have 
cultivated  a  considerable  acquaintance  with  certain  plants 
and  animals,  both  wild  and  domestic,  while  the  city  child 


48  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

is  apt  to  be  in  a  state  of  great  ignorance  in  reference  to 
such  things.  To  give  to  both  of  these  experiences  the  same 
work  would  result  either  in  commonplaces  to  the  country 
child  or  mysteries  to  the  city  child.  The  average  city  child 
labors  under  a  great  handicap  in  reference  to  nature  study, 
and  is  in  peculiar  need  of  it  in  its  most  elementary  form. 

All  this  means  an  adaptable  teacher,  one  who  is  very 
sensitive  to  differences  of  experience  among  pupils,  who 
can  lay  hold  of  any  material,  and  who  can  vary  the  presenta- 
tion according  to  the  need.  This  last  point  is  often  lost 
sight  of  and  is  very  important.  Truth  is  many-sided,  and 
it  is  always  a  question  as  to  which  side  will  make  the  most 
effective  first  impression.  This  is  a  very  real  problem 
which  is  to  be  solved  only  by  the  teacher.  For  example,  is 
it  the  individual  tree  that  has  interest,  or  trees  massed  in 
a  forest  ?  Is  it  the  general  habit  of  a  tree  that  impresses 
or  the  wonderful  work  it  is  doing?  Or  do  trees  impress 
some  children  at  all  ?  Quick  shifts  must  often  be  made  in 
points  of  view  when  an  effective  one  is  stumbled  upon. 

Activity  Rather  than  Structure. — Children  seem  to  be 
most  interested  in  observing  things  that  are  doing  some- 
thing, and  fortunately  this  activity  represents  the  most 
important  fact  in  reference  to  any  organism,  for  structure 
finds  its  most  important  significance  in  the  work  it  does. 
For  this  reason  children  watch  with  more  interest  the 
behavior  of  animals  than  that  of  plants;  their  activity  is  so 
much  more  in  evidence.  However,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
show  that  plants  also  are  very  active.  It  is  fundamental 
that  all  studies  with  plants  and  animals  should  rest  upon 
the  idea  that  organisms  are  at  work;  that  life  compels  work. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  study  of  structure  is  to  be 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF   NATURE  STUDY          49 

omitted;  far  from  it!  It  means  simply  that  all  structure 
must  be  interpreted  as  to  function  so  far  as  possible. 
'Activity  is  to  be  the  dominant  idea.  For  example,  the 
general  structure  of  leaves  ought  to  be  observed,  but  only 
as  leading  to  interpretation  of  their  exceedingly  important 
work.  This  dominating  idea  determines  the  structures 
to  be  observed,  and  eliminates  all  dead  work.  The  general 
habits  of  trees  ought  to  be  observed  in  relation  to  their 
scheme  for  the  position  of  branches  and  the  display  of 
foliage.  The  structure  of  bird  feathers  or  of  insect  mouth 
parts  or  of  gastropod  shells  should  be  studied,  but  always 
in  terms  of  the  part  they  play  in  the  economy  of  the  animal's 
daily  existence. 

This  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  habit  of  assigning  a 
designed  purpose,  often  more  or  less  obscure  and  forced, 
to  every  structure  met.  Warning  has  already  been  given 
as  to  the  dangers  in  wholesale  claims  of  adaptations. 
Where  the  structures  observed  have  an  obvious  use  that  use 
is  to  be  brought  out,  always  by  the  children  rather  than  the 
teacher,  but  the  form  of  statement  that  things  are  thus 
and  so  because  of  such  a  need  of  the  organism  is  a  form  of 
statement  whose  assumption  is  usually  unwarranted  by 
the  facts  and  is  to  be  avoided. 

To  show  that  plants  as  well  as  animals  are  busily  at 
work  simple  experiments  are  valuable  and  usually  arouse 
decided  interest.  Seeds  are  commonly  germinated  in  the 
schoolroom  in  connection  with  nature  study.  Pupils  in 
upper  grades  have  been  heard  to  complain  that  they  "had 
beans  in  every  room."  The  loss  of  interest  and  time  in 
repetition  has  been  pointed  out,  but  the  value  and  interest 
of  germination  work  are  enhanced  by  the  use  of  various  seeds 


50  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

and  by  experiments.  Germination  studies  should  always 
make  clear  by  experiment  the  conditions  essential  to  this 
process,  and  the  varying  habits  of  different  seeds.  Simple 
experiments  demonstrating  the  ascent  of  sap,  the  evapora- 
tion of  water  from  the  leaves,  the  rate  of  growth,  and  the 
turning  of  roots  toward  water  can  be  arranged  with  home- 
made apparatus.  One  cannot  see  the  sap  ascending  in  a 
tree,  but  after  experimenting  with  the  movement  of  water 
in  a  stem  he  can  appreciate  what  is  going  on  in  countless 
tree  trunks.  One  cannot  see  water  vapor  arising  from 
leaves,  but  after  measuring  transpiration  he  can  appreciate 
the  great  volume  of  water  given  out  by  forests,  and  their 
value  as  water  reservoirs. 

Definiteness. — To  work  effectively,  the  teacher  must 
work  to  some  definite  purpose.  To  place  material  before 
children,  or  to  send  them  out  to  observe  anything,  without 
definite  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  as  to  the  things 
to  be  done  and  some  plan  of  action  suggested  to  the  children 
is  never  effective.  Children  have  been  set  to  observe 
a  tree,  with  no  suggestion  whatsoever,  and  without  the 
faintest  idea  as  to  the  important  points.  As  an  experi- 
ment to  discover  what  facts  about  a  tree  impress  children 
the  most,  this  is  sometimes  worth  while,  but  as  an  ordinary 
method  it  results  in  confusion.  No  material  should  be 
assigned  that  has  not  been  traversed  previously  by  the 
teacher,  so  that  she  knows  that  there  are  some  very  definite 
facts  in  plain  sight.  Even  in  the  university  the  laboratory 
instructor  must  work  over  his  material  and  his  experiments 
before  each  exercise,  so  as  to  be  sure  that  what  he  wants  is 
there  in  good  condition  or  that  his  experiment  will  work. 
Quite  as  much  is  this  needed^  in  nature  study,  for  young 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF  NATURE   STUDY  51 

pupils  must  not  be  made  to  search  long  or  to  obtain  poor 
results.  Lack  of  definiteness  results  in  work  that  is  con- 
fusing, discouraging,  and  disastrous. 

It  is  just  here  that  the  teacher's  greatest  skill  is  called 
for.  To  give  enough  suggestion  to  make  observation 
definite  and  not  to  give  enough  to  interfere  with  independ- 
ence is  sailing  between  Scylla  and  Charybdis.  Either 
extreme  is  disastrous,  and  the  decision  as  to  just  what  to 
suggest  and  what  to  leave  to  suggest  itself  must  always  be 
dependent  upon  the  immediate  circumstances  both  as  to 
material  and  as  to  pupils. 

Sketching. — In  connection  with  the  observational  work 
there  is  no  question  as  to  the  value  of  sketching;  it  can 
hardly  be  called  drawing.  The  purpose  is  not  to  make  a 
good  sketch,  but  to  insure  accurate  observation,  and  it  is 
the  best  teaching  device  known  to  secure  this  result. 
Usually  no  one  sees  an  object  with  exactness  or  fastens  it  in 
his  memory  clearly  until  he  attempts  to  reproduce  it.  Any 
artistic  skill  possessed  by  a  pupil  is  apt  to  be  a  danger,  for 
the  tendency  then  is  to  make  a  picture  rather  than  to  record 
the  facts.  And  yet  the  exercise  incidentally  teaches  one  to 
make  lines  represent  facts  with  exactness.  The  peda- 
gogical value  of  sketching  in  nature  study,  however,  lies 
in  the  effort  to  reproduce  rather  than  in  the  accurate  re- 
production. A  pupil  whose  sketch  does  not  represent  the 
object,  and  who  recognizes  the  fact,  may  have  received  as 
much  benefit  from  the  exercise  as  the  pupil  who  sketches 
better.  This  is  important  to  remember  in  criticising  and 
in  grading  pupils.  In  using  such  a  device,  the  temptation 
is  to  make  the  device  the  end  in  itself  rather  than  its  effect 
upon  the  pupils.  Sketching  should  measure  the  thought 


52  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

behind  it  no  more  than  does  handwriting;  both  ought  to 
be  as  good  as  possible,  but  both  are  subordinate. 

Individual  Work. — Observation  must  be  made  as  in- 
dependent as  possible  and  this  means  individual  work 
rather  than  general  class  exercises.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  argue  for  this  method,  for  it  lies  at  the  very  center  of  the 
idea  of  the  laboratory  method  which  has  penetrated  and 
revolutionized  all  education.  To  lean  upon  anyone  else 
for  an  observation  is  to  make  it  ineffective,  and  the  majority 
of  pupils  will  lean  if  permitted  to  do  so.  General  exercises 
are  often  conducted  in  which  some  object  is  held  up  before 
the  class,  different  things  about  it  pointed  out  and  named, 
and  an  occasional  question  asked.  Under  these  conditions 
the  pupils  fall  into  four  categories:  those  wh^rdo  not  listen, 
those  who  do  not  observe,  those  who  do  not  answer,  and  a 
few  eager  ones  who  do  all  the  listening,  observing,  and 
answering. 

Individual  work  means  individual  responsibility,  a  most 
important  lesson  to  learn  early  and  to  learn  thoroughly. 
It  takes  those  who  do  not  listen,  or  observe,  or  answer  out 
of  the  class  of  drones  and  makes  of  them  workers.  This 
sort  of  work  means  more  effort  by  the  teacher  than  a 
general  exercise,  but  its  results  are  worth  much  more  than 
the  difference  in  trouble.  To  individualize  material  or 
experiments  in  the  classroom  is  simple  enough,  even  if  it  is 
laborious,  but  to  individualize  work  in  the  open  is  often 
regarded  as  impractical.  The  school  garden  work  should 
be  based  upon  this  idea  of  individual  responsibility  just 
as  soon  as  the  maturity  of  the  pupils  permits;  in  fact,  a 
school  garden  would  hardly  be  justified  if  it  were  made  a 
general  exercise  throughout. 


THE  PRINCIPLES   OF  NATURE  STUDY          53 

Although  individual  work  is  spoken  of  in  contrast  with 
general  exercises,  this  need  not  necessarily  mean  each 
pupil  working  alone.  In  fact,  it  is  often  a  great  advantage 
to  break  the  class  up  into  groups  of  two  or  three  in  the  con- 
duct of  observations  and  experiments.  A  companion  or 
two  in  work  is  a  great  stimulus  to  effort,  to  interest,  to 
exactness.  A  pupil  working  alone  may  be  careless,  in- 
exact, or  even  untruthful;  but  two  or  three  working  to- 
gether will  be  almost  sure  to  bring  in  honest  results.  Even 
in  the  primary  grades  this  group  system  appears  to  be 
desirable  in  the  garden  work.  Such  separation  into  groups 
also  often  arouses  a  desirable  spirit  of  competition.  It  is 
interesting  and  instructive  to  see  and  hear  one  of  these 
groups  properly  at  work.  The  observation  by  one  pair  of 
sharp  young  eyes  is  checked  or  supplemented  by  the  ob- 
servation of  another  pair  equally  sharp;  then  the  discussion 
comes;  thenTepeated  observation  is  made  to  settle  dispute; 
and  finally  the  conclusion  is  reached.  This  working  over 
of  the  problem  before  the  result  is  presented  gives  admir- 
able results. 

Unprejudiced  Observation. — The  danger  which  lies  in 
the  teacher's  telling  too  much,  and  the  difficulty  in  avoid- 
ing this  without  telling  too  little  have  been  mentioned. 
But  the  telling  too  much  is  perhaps  the  more  serious  fault, 
for  it  leaves  no  effort  for  the  pupil,  while  telling  too  little 
leaves  the  effort,  even  if  it  results  in  no  very  definite  obser- 
vation. 

Children  in  school  are  remarkably  docile,  and  if  told  to 
see  a  thing,  the  majority  of  them  will  confess  to  seeing  it. 
In  the  preceding  chapter  reference  was  made  to  a  trouble- 
some boy  who  would  not  see  the  two  coats  of  a  seed  which 


54  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

the  teacher  called  for.  In  that  particular  instance  the 
class  was  almost  unanimous  in  professing  to  see  something 
that  did  not  exist,  simply  because  they  thought  they  ought 
to  see  it.  It  must  be  evident  that  this  result  is  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  one  sought.  It  is  just  this  kind  of  docility 
that  must  be  broken  up,  or  the  child  will  become  a  con- 
firmed dependent. 

This  kind  of  dependence  appears  even  among  university 
students,  whose  observations  are  not  prejudiced  in  this 
case  by  instructors,  but  by  well- illustrated  text-books. 
This  flinching  from  doing  the  one  really  essential  thing, 
when  it  comes  to  observation,  is  to  be  observed  in  many 
ways  and  is  to  be  checked  at  all  hazards.  In  nature  study, 
text-book,  or  chart  illustrations  are  not  likely  to  prejudice, 
and  the  teacher  properly  on  his  guard  will  not  commit  such 
a  blunder,  but  even  then  there  are  ways  of  dodging  the 
issue.  There  are  sketches  of  fellow  pupils  that  may  be 
used  as  a  substitute  for  one's  own  observation;  this  of 
course  is  palpable  dependence.  A  more  subtle  form  of 
prejudiced  observation  is  the  careless  or  hasty  look,  fol- 
lowed by  a  record  made  to  fit  general  impressions  rather 
than  the  actual  facts. 

It  is  very  helpful  to  discover  the  tendencies  of  individual 
pupils  in  a  variety  of  ways,  trying  to  discover  the  personal 
equations  and  then  attempting  to  correct  them.  A  bad 
case  needs  to  be  isolated  from  every  form  of  temptation, 
a  sort  of  solitary  confinement,  until  real  observation 
is  secured.  In  other  cases,  whose  symptoms  are  not  so 
serious,  occasional  traps  will  probably  bring  caution  and 
honesty.  Some  cases  will  be  found  hopeless,  for  they  are 
born  dependents,  or  they  may  be  even  persistently  dis- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  NATURE   STUDY          55 

honest.  But  the  majority  will  respond  and  will  presently 
stand  any  test  of  independent,  honest  observation,  feeling 
free  to  contradict  book,  teacher,  or  any  other  authority 
that  does  not  agree  with  their  owrn  observations.  This  is 
really  the  ideal  result;  but  it  is  rather  surprising  to  find 
that  the  " spirit  of  contradiction"  distresses  many  teachers 
and  angers  some.  Honest  contradiction  based  on  honest 
observation  means  an  alert,  independent  mind,  and  when 
such  a  result  is  reached  in  the  case  of  any  pupil,  then  teacher 
and  pupil  may  enter  into  comradeship  in  observation,  and 
the  further  progress  of  both  is  assured. 

Comparison  of  Results. — This  deserves  special  atten- 
tion. It  ties  up  the  bundle  of  observations  in  such  a  way 
that  they  lead  to  a  much  larger  outlook  and  the  intellectual 
result  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  In  fact,  observations 
conducted  in  accordance  with  all  the  previous  suggestions 
seem  to  end  somewhat  blindly  without  the  culminating 
process  of  comparison.  It  would  resemble  reading  a  story 
so  as  to  become  acquainted  with  the  characters  and  even 
interested  in  them  and  in  the  dramatic  situations,  and  then 
omitting  the  concluding  pages  that  record  the  final  results 
and  give  meaning  to  all  that  has  been  done.  It  would 
resemble  the  tracing  of  a  series  of  converging  lines  and 
stopping  before  they  meet  at  some  point.  The  intellectual 
results  obtained  from  the  process  of  comparison  follow 
one  another  in  a  series  so  swift  that  one  seems  to  compress 
into  a  brief  effort  more  results  than  have  been  obtained 
from  everything  that  has  gone  before.  This  point  needs 
somewhat  close  analysis  to  see  what  a  rich  content  of  results 
comparison  contains. 

Let  us  suppose  that  various  plants  or  animals  have  been 

5 


56  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

examined  by  different  pupils  or  small  groups  of  pupils. 
The  exercise  may  have  dealt  with  such  details  that  only 
one  kind  was  used,  individual  specimens  having  been 
assigned  to  individual  pupils  or  small  groups.  Or  the 
exercise  may  have  been  a  general  one,  applying  to  a  group 
of  types,  as  woodpeckers  or  evergreen  trees.  In  either  case 
each  pupil  or  group  has  made  and  recorded  observations 
that  are  presumably  independent  and  honest.  When  all 
these  sets  of  observations  are  brought  together  and  com- 
pared, it  will  soon  become  apparent  that  there  are  differ- 
ences. Far  the  most  interesting  way  of  comparing  results 
is  to  take  them  up  item  by  item  in  a  class  meeting  and  call 
for  an  oral  statement  in  reference  to  them.  Some  of  the 
differences  of  statement  will  be  so  great  as  to  appear  like 
contradictions.  The  chances  are  that  a  general  oral 
exercise  of  this  kind  will  develop  discussion  and  perhaps 
dispute,  and  the  more  interested  and  eager  the  dispute  can 
become  the  better,  for  it  means  momentum  for  what  must 
follow,  and  clinches  things  in  memory  when  agreement  is 
reached. 

The  next  step  comes  so  naturally  that  it  is  likely  to  be 
proposed  by  the  pupils  themselves.  Differences  and  even 
contradictions  in  the  results  demand  a  reexamination  of 
the  material,  each  claimant  undertaking  to  make  his  claim 
good  to  the  class  as  a  whole.  This  will  certainly  detect 
and  so  eliminate  careless  observations  and  dishonest 
claims,  and  will  stiffen  the  moral  backbone  in  future 
exercises.  This  phase  of  the  result,  however,  is  only  in- 
cidental, for  the  exercise  is  not  meant  to  be  a  trap  for  the 
careless  and  the  dishonest.  What  we  have  in  mind  are 
sets  of  honest  and  good  observations  that  show  differences 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF  NATURE  STUDY          57 

of  varying  degrees  up  to  contradiction,  and  that  are  con- 
firmed upon  reexamination.  This  is  the  useful  situation 
to  develop,  and  it  is  the  usual  one  if  the  work  has  been 
well  done. 

Confronted  with  the  fact  that  many  differences  in  evi- 
dence are  not  due  to  mistakes  but  are  real,  the  pupil  has 
reached  an  experience  that  is  very  important.  He  must 
see  for  himself  or  be  shown  that  while  certain  observed 
features  are  different,  others  are  similar.  The  result  is 
recognition  of  the  facts  that  the  characters  in  common  are 
the  important  ones,  and  that  the  characters  which  differ 
are  not  so  important,  being  only  individual  differences. 
For  example,  a  number  of  maples  may  have  been  under 
observation,  and  the  result  will  be  sets  of  observations  that 
will  show  characters  in  common  and  characters  that  vary. 
Those  in  common  will  be  found  to  be  the  features  that  dis- 
tinguish maples  in  general  from  other  trees,  while  those  that 
vary  will  prove  to  be  variations  in  individual  maples,  or 
the  variations  which  indicate  the  different  species.  Not 
only  will  the  difference  between  essentials  and  variations 
be  determined  in  this  way,  but  the  possible  amount  of 
individual  variation  will  often  be  quite  impressive.  It 
will  be  realized,  for  example,  how  much  maples  may  vary 
and  still  be  maples.  Here,  again,  it  is  not  a  specific  ex- 
ercise which  is  recommended,  but  merely  an  illustration 
given  which  applies  to  almost  any  material. 

A  few  experiences  of  the  kind  suggested  certainly  have  a 
tendency  to  develop  caution.  When  differences  in  the 
results  of  observation  develop  in  connection  with  some 
subsequent  exercise,  there  is  more  toleration  shown,  the 
tone  of  discussion  or  dispute  is  not  so  confident,  and  the 


58  NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

appeal  to  reexamination  is  more  immediate.  To  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  other  people  may  be  right  even  though 
they  seem  to  differ  from  one  is  making  progress.  Disputes 
may  be  frequently  heard  among  adults  which  children, 
trained  in  comparisons  as  just  indicated,  would  make  short 
work  of.  Herein  lies  a  way  to  the  attainment  of  the 
scientific  spirit,  which  is  more  important  in  education 
than  ten  thousand  mere  facts  of  science. 

The  crowning  result  of  this  exercise,  when  repeated 
often  enough,  is  to  teach  the  need  and  nature  of  adequate 
proof  before  a  statement  can  be  insisted  upon  very  strenu- 
ously. For  example,  a  boy  claimed  that  oak  leaves  have 
five  lobes;  he  knew  it  because  he  ha,d  seen  an  oak  leaf  and 
counted  its  lobes.  Another  boy,  who  has  been  through  the 
mill  described  above,  knows  that  this  is  not  proof;  that 
many  more  oak  leaves  must  be  examined;  and  that  very 
likely  the  lobes  will  be  found  to  vary  in  number.  Yet 
the  statement  of  the  first  boy  represents  by  far  the  most 
common  form  of  statement,  and  many  people  even  base 
important  beliefs  upon  testimony  no  more  critically  ex- 
amined than  the  testimony  of  the  oak  leaves  by  the  con- 
fident boy  who  examined  one. 

This  tendency  to  confidence  in  conclusion  based  upon 
few  or  even  single  observations  is  so  general  that  it  needs 
serious  attention,  and  any  exercise  that  helps  to  correct  it 
cannot  be  repeated  too  frequently.  One  of  the  hardest 
things  in  teaching  experience  has  been  to  check  the  tend- 
ency of  many  students  to  use  one  fact  for  a  starting  point 
for  a  flight  of  fancy  that  is  surprising.  Such  a  tendency 
is  corrected  when  facts  accumulate  somewhat,  and  flight 
in  one  direction  is  checked  by  a  pull  in  some  other  direction. 


THE  PRINCIPLES   OF  NATURE   STUDY  59 

But  most  of  us  have  the  tendency,  and  the  majority  are  so 
unhampered  by  facts  that  flight  is  free. 

There  seems  to  be  also  a  notion  current  that  one  may 
start  with  a  single  fact  of  nature  and  by  some  logical 
machinery  construct  an  elaborate  system  and  reach  an 
authentic  conclusion,  much  as  the  world  has  imagined  for 
more  than  a  century  that  Cuvier  could  construct  a  skeleton 
if  a  single  bone  were  furnished  him.  Facts  are  like  step- 
ping-stones; so  long  as  one  can  get  a  reasonably  close  series 
of  them  he  can  make  some  progress  in  a  given  direction, 
but  when  he  steps  beyond  them  he  flounders.  As  one 
travels  away  from  a  fact  its  significance  in  any  conclusion 
becomes  more  and  more  attenuated;  until  presently  the 
vanishing  point  is  reached  and  its  power  of  illumination 
fades  like  the  rays  of  light  from  a  candle.  A  fact  is  really 
only  influential  in  its  own  immediate  vicinity,  but  the  whole 
structure  of  many  a  system  lies  in  the  region  beyond  the 
vanishing  point.  When  life  and  conduct  are  shaped  by 
such  observation  and  reasoning  the  result  is  disastrous. 

This  dangerous  tendency  is  so  serious  and  fundamental 
that  that  exercise  deserves  special  emphasis  which  more 
than  any  other  single  one  in  nature  study  will  be  found 
useful  in  correcting  it. 

The  suggestions  just  made  in  this  chapter  are  intended 
to  be  a  statement  of  the  methods  by  which  the  important 
results  which  were  mentioned  at  the  close  of  the  first  chapter 
may  be  obtained.  It  remains  to  apply  the  principles  to 
actual  studies.  If  the  results  are  important,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  certain  principles  can  secure  them,  and  simple  exer- 
cises can  include  these  principles,  then  there  would  seem 
to  be  no  reason  for  hesitation  in  making  the  experiment. 


CHAPTER    VI 

THE   SPIRIT   OF  NATURE   STUDY 

Introductory. — The  spirit  that  dominates  successful 
work  in  nature  study  has  been  distinctly  implied  in  the 
preceding  chapters,  but  it  may  be  helpful  to  assemble 
definite  statements  in  regard  to  it  into  a  continuous  presenta- 
tion. It  is  important  for  the  teacher  or  the  adult  student 
to  appreciate  what  may  be  called  the  atmosphere  that 
vitalizes  the  subject.  This  will  enable  one  to  distinguish 
between  the  genuine  and  the  spurious,  just  as  one  learns 
to  distinguish  between  genuine  and  spurious  art.  This 
will  bring  critical  judgment  to  bear  not  only  upon  one's 
own  work  as  a  teacher  or  a  student,  but  also  upon  the 
literature  of  the  subject  and  the  claims  made  by  public 
lecturers.  Nature  study  has  been  defined  as  a  certain 
"  attitude  toward  nature." 

The  ability  to  pass  intelligent  judgment  upon  the 
increasing  body  of  the  literature  of  this  subject  is  very 
important  to  teachers  and  is  not  difficult  to  acquire  if  one 
catches  the  spirit.  It  is  much  like  judging  individuals, 
who  for  the  most  part  soon  arouse  a  feeling  of  confidence 
or  of  distrust;  it  is  difficult  to  describe  just  how,  but  the 
judgment  comes.  Very  frequent  inquiries  come  from 
teachers  of  nature  study  asking  opinions  concerning  books, 
and  it  is  certain  that  the  majority  of  teachers  are  often 
victims  to  the !  plausible  representations  of  agents.  To 

60 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  NATURE   STUDY  6 1 

such  this  chapter  may  prove  helpful,  for  to  know  the  spirit 
of  nature  study  is  to  recognize  those  who  really  represent  it. 

To  describe  an  "atmosphere"  is  not  easy,  at  least  in 
exact  terms.  Although  real  it  is  elusive,  and  can  be  brought 
to  the  appreciation  of  anyone  only  through  experience  or 
suggestion;  and  yet  it  includes  certain  very  definite  things 
which  may  be  taken  to  represent  it  as  its  natural  expression. 

Enthusiasm. — It  is  always  characterized  by  enthusiasm, 
which  is  the  motive  power.  This  is  a  feeling  of  attraction 
for  nature  and  for  natural  objects  that  compels  attention. 
It  may  be  born  with  one  or  it  may  be  acquired,  but  without 
it  nature  study  is  as  lifeless  as  a  graven  image.  There  is 
an  enthusiasm  that  is  exuberant  and  fitful,  now  blazing 
out,  now  dead;  but  the  enthusiasm  that  counts  is  steady 
and  sustained. 

It  is  far  from  safe  to  use  enthusiasm  as  the  only  test  of 
an  effective  nature  study  spirit,  for  it  may  be  irrational  and 
hence  ineffective.  Having  been  found  in  a  person  or  in  a 
book,  it  is  taken  as  the  first  count  toward  a  favorable 
judgment;  if  it  is  found  to  be  lacking,  no  further  investiga- 
tion is  necessary,  for  nothing  else  can  take  its  place. 

It  is  just  at  this  point  that  differences  of  opinion  often 
arise.  Enthusiasm  sometimes  inclines  one  to  slur  over 
facts  rather  than  to  analyze  them  with  exactness.  This  is 
bad  if  carried  too  far,  to  the  point  of  securing  false  results; 
but  up  to  a  certain  point  it  is  far  better  than  deadly  ex- 
actness. Much  of  the  criticism  by  scientific  men  is  justi- 
fied, but  when  it  demands  an  exactness  that  belongs  to  the 
university  laboratory,  it  misses  the  mark.  There  is  a  kind 
of  exactness  that  is  essential  in  nature  study,  and  there  is 
another  kind  that  kills  it.  For  example,  it  is  necessary  to 


62  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

observe  the  exact  sequence  of  events  in  a  germinating  seed, 
but  it  is  entirely  out  of  place  to  insist  that  a  seed  does  not 
" germinate"  because  this  function  is  restricted  to  spores.  \ 
It  is  essential  to  see  that  most  stems  turn  toward  the  light 
and  most  roots  turn  toward  the  earth,  if  a  curve  is  necessary 
to  secure  these  directions,  but  to  insist  upon  a  form  of 
statement  that  describes  with  exactness  the  response  to» 
the  stimulus  of  light  and  of  gravity  is  a  useless  analysis  at 
this  stage  of  education.  Total  results  are  to  be  considered 
primarily,  and  the  factors  which  contribute  to  them  cannot 
be  analyzed  too  critically,  else  teachers  acquire  so  much 
deadly  dullness  that  they  destroy  all  enthusiasm. 

This  demand  for  exactness  that  kills  enthusiasm  ap- 
pears more  in  connection  with  terminology,  perhaps,  than 
in  a  needlessly  close  analysis  of  the  facts.  Technical  terms 
are  used  to  secure  exactness,  and  in  study  of  the  sciences 
they  are  absolutely  necessary,  but  in  nature  study  they 
have  small  place,  for  the  accuracy  they  imply  is  not  de- 
manded. To  elaborate,  for  example,  the  differences  be- 
tween a  rhizome  and  a  tuber  is  perhaps  necessary  at 
some  stage  of  progress,  but  all  the  student  of  nature  study 
needs  to  know  is  that  they  are  both  thickened,  underground 
parts  of  plants,  to  be  called  by  whatever  name  happens  to  be 
convenient. 

This  is  not  a  plea  for  inaccuracy  either  in  observation 
or  in  terminology,  but  a  plea  for  the  salvation  of  enthusiasm. 
Anything  that  would  diminish  it  must  be  avoided,  and 
experience  has  shown  that  technical  exactness  does  this 
very  thing  for  the  first  contacts  with  nature.  General 
ideas,  impressions  if  you  please,  come  first,  and  when  they 
have  been  established  their  analysis  with  its  terminology 


THE   SPIRIT  OF  NATURE  STUDY  63 

may  follow.  This  guarding  of  enthusiasm  constantly  sug- 
gests points  of  danger.  For  example,  in  addition  to  the 
dangers  already  referred  to,  the  repetition  of  similar  ex- 
ercises beyond  the  point  of  interest  is  a  frequent  menace 
to  continuous  enthusiasm.  Insistence  in  carrying  through 
an  exercise  that  has  been  thought  useful,  but  has  proved 
otherwise  at  the  very  outset,  is  similarly  of  dubious  value. 
In  short,  when  interest  is  guarded,  which  has  been  shown 
to  be  essential,  enthusiasm  is  guarded. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  enthusiasm  any  more 
than  interest  lives  on  excitement.  Such  enthusiasm  is  un- 
healthy and  cannot  be  sustained.  It  is  like  attempting  a 
continuous  Fourth  of  July.  Pupils  need  different  treat- 
ment; the  exuberance  of  some  must  be  toned  down  to  a 
safer  level;  the  sluggishness  of  others  must  be  stimulated 
into  effectiveness.  It  is  apparent  that  it  is  no  simple  thing 
to  secure  enthusiasm  of  the  right  kind  and  of  the  right 
amount,  but  it  is  essential. 

The  questions  to  ask  oneself,  if  a  teacher  or  a  student, 
or  to  answer  for  one's  pupils,  are  as  follows:  Has  nature 
any  real  attraction  for  me?  Is  it  so  attractive  that  I  will 
not  be  rebuffed  easily?  Is  my  enthusiasm  in  danger  of 
sweeping  me  off  my  intellectual  balance  and  submerging 
me  in  mere  feeling  ?  Must  things  be  exciting  to  be  inter- 
esting ?  Ami  looking  at  nature  as  a  dry  book  of  details 
and  terminology,  which  it  is  my  duty  to  read?  Honest 
answers  to  these  questions  will  go  far  toward  determining 
whether  any  effective  enthusiasm  exists. 

An  Open  Mind. — This  means  a  teachable  mind,  one 
with  no  prejudices,  and  ready  to  receive  impressions 
freely.  To  come  into  contact  with  nature  with  any  pre- 


64  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

conceived  opinions  as  to  what  it  should  be  is  to  court  re- 
buff and  perhaps  blindness.  There  was  once  a  time  when 
botanists  conceived  the  idea  that  each  kind  of  plant  repre- 
sented a  definite  type,  and  this  type  was  carefully  described 
and  named.  When  they  visited  plants  in  nature,  they 
carefully  selected  those  individuals  which  represented  the 
preconceived  type,  and  disregarded  all  the  others,  which 
others  happened  to  be  in  the  large  majority.  In  fact,  one 
ardent  botanist  called  these  individuals  that  would  not 
come  true  to  type  "  devices  of  the  devil."  This  distinct 
prejudice  blinded  botanists  to  the  great  fact  that  was 
thrusting  itself  upon  their  attention  persistently  that  no 
such  types  exist,  but  that  variation  exists  everywhere.  In 
this  case  prejudice  was  sufficient  to  introduce  into  nature, 
for  these  observers,  a  figment  of  their  own  imagination; 
and  it  will  do  just  the  same  thing  for  anyone  who  observes) 
only  what  he  thinks  he  ought  to  observe. 

Here  comes  the  danger  in  books  and  teachers,  for  must 
one  not  read  or  hear  before  he  can  observe  ?  This  is  true, 
in  a  sense,  but  not  in  the  literal  way  in  which  it  is  often 
taken.  The  books  and  teachers  must  not  be  taken  to 
direct  and  enforce  the  details  of  observation,  but  simply  i 
to  emphasize  the  record  of  things  that  have  been  observed. ' 
They  suggest  the  things  to  examine,  but  should  never 
determine  the  things  seen.  A  botanist  may  describe  a 
plant  or  a  zoologist  an  animal  in  considerable  detail,  and 
yet  no  one  may  be  able  to  find  forms  just  like  the  descrip- 
tions. The  result  of  observation  should  be,  not  that  no 
such  forms  could  be  found,  but  that  the  forms  seen  differed 
in  several  particulars. 

The  beauty  of  the  open  mind  is  that  it  sees  what  is  to 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  NATURE  STUDY  65 

be  seen,  and  is  continually  encountering  facts  that  it  never 
saw  in  a  book  or  heard  from  a  teacher.  The  records  of 
nature  are  very  meager  as  compared  with  the  facts  of 
nature,  and  it  is  the  latter  that  the  student  is  exploring. 
To  select  a  few  cut-and-dried  things  beforehand  and  then 
to  go  out  intb  nature  to  find  them  is  like  matching  a  pat- 
tern in  a  great  department  store  rather  than  looking  at  its 
wealth  of  offering.  Experience  is  a  good  guide,  but  not 
if  it  keeps  one  in  a  narrow  path  between  high  walls;  its 
use  in  nature  study  is  to  show  that  there  are  no  boundary 
walls. 

Teachers  may  be  troubled  by  the  freedom  which  this 
spirit  produces.  They  have  laboriously  familiarized  them- 
selves with  certain  observations,  and  when  the  boundaries 
are  disregarded  they  are  at  a  loss.  Questions  are  asked, 
material  is  introduced,  observations  are  made,  which  are 
out  of  bounds  and  hence  perplexing.  But  the  spirit  is 
vital,  and  must  not  be  suppressed,  for  it  is  the  very  free- 
dom of  nature.  The  wise  teacher,  who  does  not  feel  com- 
pelled to  know  everything,  can  guide  and  use  it,  and  is 
most  fortunate  if  his  work  has  permitted  its  expression. 

A  Spirit  of  Inquiry. — This  is  an  attitude  of  mind  es- 
sential to  nature  study,  and  is  also  one  of  the  most  valuable 
assets  in  life.  The  need  of  this  in  life  may  serve  to  illustrate 
its  place  in  nature  study.  In  our  experience  we  encounter 
a  vast  body  of  established  belief  in  reference  to  all  im- 
portant subjects.  Not  only  do  we  encounter  this  in  others, 
but  we  find  ourselves  cherishing  beliefs,  often  called 
hereditary,  but  really  the  result  of  early  association.  Noth- 
ing seems  more  evident  than  that  all  this  established  belief 
belongs  to  one  or  the  other  of  two  categories;  to  wit,  the 


66  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

priceless  results  of  generations  of  experience,  and  heirloom 
rubbish.  The  spirit  of  inquiry  impels  one  to  examine  the 
foundations  of  belief.  The  childhood  of  the  race  accumu- 
lated much  which  its  manhood  is  compelled  to  lay  aside, 
and  our  mental  stock  in  trade  needs  going  over  and  revising 
continually.  This  is  the  only  way  to  keep  trie  true  from 
being  covered  over  by  the  false. 

Every  part  of  this  description  applies  to  the  need  of  a 
spirit  of  inquiry  in  nature  study.  We  find  that  there  are 
many  cherished  beliefs  about  nature  that  people  have 
grown  up  with  and  many  of  them  may  be  on  record.  They 
may  be  recited  to  us  by  friends,  by  teachers,  or  by  books. 
We  can  be  sure  that  some  of  them  are  founded  on  the  truth, 
and  that  others  are  nonsense;  and  so  far  as  opportunity 
permits  us,  the  spirit  of  inquiry  urges  us  to  put  them  to  the 
test.  Under  the  last  topic  it  was  indicated  that  the  open 
mind  comes  into  a  larger  and  freer  contact  with  nature 
than  instruction  can  anticipate,  but  the  spirit  of  inquiry 
finds  part  of  its  mission  in  looking  into  the  foundation  of 
instruction.  Old  ideas  of  nature  became  crystallized  into 
statements,  and  these  statements  have  been  passed  on 
from  one  book  to  another,  and  they  reappear  in  the  in- 
struction of  to-day.  Some  of  these  statements  stand  the 
test  of  new  observation  and  others  do  not. 

The  spirit  of  inquiry,  therefore,  leads  one  to  take  the 
statements  of  books  and  of  teachers  as  things  to  be  tested 
before  they  are  believed.  It  distinguishes  clearly  between 
beliefs  that  must  be  taken  on  faith  and  those  that  need  to 
be  accepted  only  after  the  evidence  is  examined.  If  the 
teacher  states  that  all  clovers  fold  their  leaflets  toward 
evening,  and  suggests  that  the  observation  be  made,  the 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  NATURE  STUDY  67 

pupil  need  not  believe  it  until  seen,  and  then  he  will  prob- 
ably conclude  that  the^teacher  made  too  sweeping  a  state- 
ment. It  is  a  current  belief,  expressed  by  the  name,  that 
all  sunflowers  face  the  sun  and  follow  its  path,  and  the 
very  first  sunflower  met  may  contradict  this  notion.  It 
is  an  interesting  thing  to  collect  neighborhood  beliefs  in 
reference  to  nature  and  to  check  them  up  by  a  little  exact 
observation.  It  is  not  only  interesting,  but  it  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly valuable  exercise,  and  develops  an  attitude  of 
mind  that  is  really  scientific.  Especially  do  these  un- 
founded beliefs  prevail  in  connection  with  the  cultivation 
of  plants,  and  we  have  seen  children  deliberately  set  to 
violating  every  known  superstition  in  the  case  of  plants  and 
proving  them  worthless. 

The  spirit  of  inquiry  not  only  compels  one  to  examine 
the  foundation  of  current  statements  in  reference  to  nature, 
but  it  pushes  observation  into  investigation.  An  open 
mind  sees,  but  the  spirit  of  inquiry  wants  to  know  why. 
The  open  mind  sees  the  veins  of  a  leaf  and  is  not  hampered 
by  any  preconceived  plan  for  them,  but  the  spirit  of  in- 
quiry wants  to  know  what  the  veins  mean.  It  is  always 
converting  the  what  into  why,  and  is  an  endless  series  of 
interrogation  marks.  This  does  not  mean  an  endless 
series  of  answers,  for  that  is  impossible,  but  it  will  mean  an 
answer  now  and  then,  and  a  most  valuable  attitude  of  mind. 

Do  teachers  encourage  this  sort  of  thing,  or  are  they 
inclined  to  suppress  questions  and  to  resent  any  hesitation 
to  believe?  We  have  seen  this  tendency,  but  can  hardly 
believe  that  it  is  general.  There  is  no  surer  evidence  of 
an  awakened  mind  than  the  questioning  which  follows 
observation. 


68  NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

The  Desire  for  Truth. — This  topic  may  seem  to  overlap 
the  last  one,  but  it  has  a  different  application.  We  have 
touched  upon  the  prevailing  sentimentality  that  infects 
nature  study,  sentimentality  that  sometimes  may  be  called 
gush.  It  always  raises  a  fog  over  the  facts,  and  they  ap- 
pear unnatural  and  distorted.  Any  real  desire  for  truth 
resents  this  and  insists  that  the  fog  be  cleared  away  so 
that  things  may  be  seen  as  they  really  are.  It  is  just  here 
that  the  imagination  becomes  dangerous.  This  does  not 
mean  that  it  is  to  be  eliminated,  but  that  it  is  to  be  kept 
within  bounds.  Imagination  may  make  facts  glow  or  it 
may  conceal  them. 

An  actual  experience  illustrates  this  point.  A  teacher 
with  a  delightful  power  of  story-telling  had  entertained  a 
class  in  nature  study  most  successfully,  but  she  had  set 
free  her  imagination  in  such  a  way  that  fact  and  fancy 
were  all  in  a  jumble.  Only  one  who  knew  the  facts  could 
pick  them  out,  and  the  whole  description  was  as  seductive 
as  one  of  Jules  Verne's  romances.  Fortunately,  at  the 
close  of  the  exercise,  questions  were  called  for,  and  the 
proper  spirit  of  nature  study  came  into  evidence.  A  boy, 
whose  restlessness  was  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  general 
breathless  attention,  began  to  free  his  mind,  and  never 
was  a  witness  subjected  to  a  more  searching  and  persist- 
ent cross-examination  than  was  that  teacher.  That 
boy  wanted  to  know  just  what  was  true  and  what 
"made  up"  in  the  account,  and  he  did  not  propose 
to  rest  until  the  truth  had  been  freed  from  its  wrap- 
pings. This  attitude  toward  truth  appears  to  be  gen- 
eral among  boys  unless  it  has  been  unfortunately  sup- 
pressed. 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  NATURE  STUDY  69 


The  honest  desire  for  truth  not  only  seeks  to  free  it  from 
a  fog  bank  of  imagination,  but  also  compels  honest  work. 
Work  that  is  part  observation  and  part  guess  does  not 
satisfy.  Of  course  if  interest  does  not  prompt,  there  is  no 
desire  for  the  truth  in  reference  to  any  particular  exercise, 
but,  given  enthusiasm,  the  real  facts  are  discovered  if  they 
are  attainable.  The  same  desire  not  only  prompts  to\ 
honest  work,  but  mounts  over  all  sorts  of  obstacles  to 
secure  it.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  things  easy,  but 
only  to  assure  that  they  are  really  there.  A  boy  became 
interested  in  the  length  of  time  a  certain  bird  sat  on  its  nest 
to  hatch  eggs.  He  might  have  asked  some  one  who  knew, 
or  possibly  he  might  have  found  the  information  in  some 
book,  but  he  wanted  the  truth,  and  thought  he  was  able  to 
discover  it  for  himself.  That  involved  daily  trips  to  the 
nest  until  the  truth  was  discovered.  Some  would  say 
that  the  boy's  time  and  energy  might  have  been  better 
employed,  but  that  is  very  doubtful.  That  particular  fact 
at  that  particular  time  was  the  most  important  thing  for 
that  boy,  and  he  labored  to  discover  the  truth  in  a  perfectly 
scientific  way.  The  illustration  is  an  extreme  one,  for  the 
boy  was  exceptional,  but  it  illustrates  the  compelling 
power  of  the  desire  for  truth. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  such  definite  problems 
can  be  used  to  great  advantage  at  certain  stages.  This 
does  not  mean  problems  in  the  university  sense,  but  in  the 
school  sense.  It  means  the  suggestion  of  a  truth  that  may 
be  discovered  by  using  a  reasonable  amount  of  time,  effort, 
and  initiative.  Children  who  have  given  symptoms  of  an 
ability  of  this  sort  may  well  have  problems  of  this  kind 
on  hand,  to  be  followed  up  on  their  own  initiative.  It  is 


70  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

a  higher  stretch  of  observation,  for  it  substitutes  for  the 
single  study  a  continuous  series  of  observations  that  are 
related  to  one  another.  Some  problems  of  this  kind  are 
included  among  the  suggestive  studies  in  Part  Two. 

Persistence. — While  this  quality  is  most  desirable  in 
children,  and  is  welcome  when  it  appears,  one  cannot  ex- 
pect them  to  show  it  very  strongly  developed.  Nor  is  it 
desirable  with  them  to  insist  too  much  upon  persistence, 
for  such  driving  will  transform  what  ought  to  be  kept  at- 
tractive into  a  hated  task.  But  the  teacher  is  in  much 
need  of  persistence,  for  the  temptation  is  very  great  to 
do  the  easier  thing  rather  than  the  desirable  thing. 

A  field  trip  or  a  park  trip  is  often  troublesome  to 
arrange.  It  takes  time  and  planning  and  a  control  of 
children  under  difficult  conditions.  To  keep  such  a  trip 
from  being  merely  an  outdoor  frolic,  and  to  hold  it  to 
anything  like  a  class  exercise  is  a  problem  that  makes  many 
a  teacher  flinch,  and  perhaps  argue  herself  into  the  belief 
that  it  is  not  worth  the  trouble.  And  yet  it  is  the  ideal 
exercise  in  nature  study  when  well  done.  It  is  when  con- 
fronting such  trouble  that  persistence  comes  into  play. 
It  sees  that  a  field  trip  is  the  thing  to  do,  and  it  compels 
the  undertaking.  Even  though  the  first  trip  seems  to  be 
a  failure,  persistence  tries  another  one,  and  so  on  until  the 
problem  is  solved.  It  is  in  such  things  that  persistence 
means  all  the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 

The  teacher  also  knows  that  material  must  be  carefully 
selected  and  examined,  that  some  of  it  is  a  little  trouble- 
some to  secure,  that  solitary  trips  ought  to  be  made  in  ad- 
vance of  the  class,  and  the  temptation  is  to  use  inferior 
material,  to  take  the  chances  that  it  will  show  what  it  ought 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  NATURE  STUDY  71 

to,  and  to  trust  to  luck  for  the  trips.  This  shrinking  from 
a  little  sacrifice  of  comfort  is  very  common,  and  makes 
nature  study  so  unsatisfactory  that  it  becomes  an  increasing 
burden  to  the  teacher  and  to  the  pupil. 

Persistence  is  needed  also  in  the  successful  formulation 
of  many  exercises.  They  must  be  repeated  over  and  over 
in  different  ways  before  they  become  satisfactory,  and  some 
of  them  call  for  no  little  ingenuity,  especially  those  that 
call  for  experimental  work.  Suggestions  from  books  and 
from  other  teachers  never  meet  all  the  perplexities,  and 
one  must  persistently  devise  things  for  oneself. 

There  are  teachers  of  no  experience  or  training  in  nature 
study,  but  with  enthusiasm  and  persistence,  who  have 
worked  over  .their  local  material  until  they  are  perfectly 
familiar  with  its  possibilities,  who  have  devised  all  sorts  of 
useful  schemes  for  interesting  the  children  in  uncovering 
it,  and  who  have  accumulated  a  stock  of  most  suggestive 
experiments.  In  short,  they  are  exceedingly  successful; 
perhaps  more  so  than  if  their  opportunities  for  training 
had  been  greater.  There  are  other  teachers  of  high  train- 
ing whose  lack  of  persistence  makes  them  shrink  at  every 
trouble,  even  the  trouble  of  devising  something  that  they 
had  not  learned.  It  is  not  the  training  nearly  so  much  as 
the  spirit  that  makes  for  success  in  this  work,  and  since  it 
is  still  experimental  work,  all  the  teachers  who  can  think 
and  devise  should  feel  compelled  to  do  so. 

In  many  of  the  most  useful  problems  in  nature  study 
it  is  necessary  to  carry  on  observations  throughout  the 
year  or  through  successive  years.  The  observation  of  the 
same  plant  or  bird  or  insect  at  different  seasons  develops 
the  conception  of  life  histories,  which  is  far  more  im- 


72  NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

portant  than  scattered  observations  and  should  be  a 
dominant  idea.  This  is  especially  true  of  tree  and  insect 
studies  which  really  demand  such  periodic  observations  in 
order  to  be  most  successful.  Observation  through  suc- 
cessive years  develops  some  idea  of  the  differences  in  time 
of  development  and  in  appearance  in  different  years. 

To  carry  forward  the  same  ideas  over  such  intervals 
of  time  demands  persistence  of  the  first  order.  But  the 
teacher  who  depends  upon  one  season  to  be  repeated  by 
every  other  season,  and  has  the  once-for-all  idea,  is  sure  to 
run  on  to  the  rocks.  It  may  not  be  encouraging  to  teachers 
to  know  they  can  never  complete  their  equipment,  and 
that  each  succeeding  year  must  witness  the  casting  aside 
of  much  that  was  done  in  the  preceding  one,  but  the 
growth  and  the  sense  of  satisfaction  that  this  brings  is  its 
own  compensation,  and  nature  responds  with  such  at- 
traction that  she  will  be  studied  afresh  each  season  for  her 
own  sake. 

A  Special  Subject. — This  may  not  belong  strictly  to  the 
spirit  of  nature  study,  but  it  is  a  natural  expression  of  it. 
The  teacher  in  conducting  class  exercises  must  traverse 
broadly  the  materials  at  hand.  This  range  of  material  is 
so  large  and  varied  that  the  view  must  be  very  superficial. 
It  is  like  walking  through  a  huge  picture  gallery  without 
stopping  to  study  some  one  painting  or  some  one  master. 
This  first  general  view  is  just  what  is  wanted  for  children, 
but  it  is  too  superficial  for  the  teacher  or  for  the  adult 
student.  They  must  look  deeper  for  the  sake  of  their  own 
development,  which  will  bear  upon  their  teaching,  their 
standing,  and  their  happiness.  No  one  can  give  more 
than  a  superficial  look  at  very  many  things,  nor  is  the 


THE   SPIRIT  OF  NATURE   STUDY  73 

deeper  look  to  be  obtained  through  reading,  although  this 
is  a  part  of  the  process.  The  wise  thing  is  to  select  some 
special  subject  for  individual  study,  which  will  include 
much  observation  and  some  reading.  The  development 
of  a  special  region  of  the  great  field  is  a  very  common 
characteristic  of  the  most  successful  teachers.  Books * 
and  addresses  on  nature  study  show  the  same  tendency, 
and  those  who  really  represent  an  experience  and  a 
knowledge  that  is  helpful  to  teachers  stand  for  some  re- 
stricted field  for  work.  One  stands  for  plants  in  general, 
another  for  trees,  another  for  ,birds,  another  for  insects, 
another  for  amphibians,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  list. 
Upon  listening  to  the  instruction  of  these  various  represen- 
tatives of  nature  study,  it  would  seem  as  if  each  one  was 
working  with  the  only  material  worth  while.  But  no 
such  conclusion  is  warranted,  for  this  variety  of  material 
presented  only  means  that  these  individuals  have  become 
representatives  of  nature  study  by  selecting  some  special 
material  for  special  study.  They  are  very  familiar  with  it, 
and  so  can  present  it  effectively.  These  special  fields  are 
used  simply  to  illustrate  the  principles  of  the  general  field, 
principles  that  may  apply  to  any  material.  There  has 
been  a  very  successful  summer  school  of  nature  study  in 
which  only  trees  and  birds  were  studied;  another  in  which 
insects  were  the  objects  of  chief  attention.  In  any  of  these 
cases  it  was  never  intended  that  the  materials  used  by 
these  teachers  with  their  classes  should  be  so  restricted, 
and  it  certainly  should  not  be.  But  a  teacher  who  has 
learned  how  to  use  trees  and  birds  ought  to  be  in  a  position 
to  include  other  plants  and  other  animals  in  the  work  in 
similar  manner.  The  material  used  in  the  summer-school 


74  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

classes  referred  to  simply  represented  that  which  was  most 
favorable  for  the  place  and  most  familiar  to  the  instructor. 

Therefore  every  teacher  of  nature  study  is  earnestly 
advised  to  select  some  particular  subject  and  to  become 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  it.  It  may  be  wild  plants,  or 
trees,  or  birds,  or  different  groups  of  insects,  or  fish,  or 
reptiles,  or  domestic  animals,  or  cultivated  plants,  or  plant 
communities,  or  any  of  the  score  of  subjects  that  might 
be  mentioned,  but  let  it  be  a  choice  thoughtfully  made  and 
persistently  followed.  This  may  bring  a  definite  prefer- 
ence for  a  certain  kind  of  material  in  teaching,  but  this 
will  not  hurt;  it  is  far  better  than  no  preference  at  all.  We 
have  any  number  of  teachers  of  biology,  but  not  one  of 
them  is  good  who  is  not  biased  either  as  a  botanist  or  a 
zoologist,  and  his  work  shows  it.  The  same  thing  is  true 
_of 'teachers  of  nature  study;  for  the  good  ones  show  a 
decided  preference  for  certain  kinds  of  material — a  prefer- 
ence that  is  determined  by  familiarity. 

Also  this  following  of  a  specialty  is  more  certain  than 
any  other  method  to  arouse  a  real  and  abiding  interest  in 
nature,  for  such  interest  is  quite  sure  to  accompany  the 
acquirement  of  a  precise  and  somewhat  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  any  particular  field.  What  field  is  chosen  matters 
not  at  all.  As  depth  of  knowledge  of  nature  is  acquired 
one  passes  through  essentially  the  same  rich  experiences 
whatever  the  field. 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE   STUDY 

Introductory. — In  the  foregoing  chapters  many  of  the 
principles  that  should  govern  the  teaching  of  nature 
study  have  been  named  and  emphasized.  While  all  of 
them  are  well  worth  careful  consideration,  none  is  more 
important  than  the  suggestion  that  a  recognition  of  the 
principle  of  child  study  should  determine  what  we  shall 
teach  in  the  different  grades  of  the  elementary  schools. 
Without  this  recognition  we  are  likely  to  defeat  our  own 
ends.  Instead  of  bringing  the  children  into  closer,  more 
intelligent  touch  with  nature  we  may  drive  them  further 
away  from  it. 

Children  live  in  a  world  all  their  own.  They  do  not  see 
things  as  adults  do,  neither  do  they  appreciate  the  things 
that  adults  care  for.  In  order  that  we  may  act  intelligently 
in  arranging  a  course  in  nature  study  for  children  we  must 
catch  at  least  a  glimpse  of  the  world  in  which  they  live 
and  move.  We  must  know  something  of  what  they  are, 
and  what  they  know  at  the  different  periods  in  their  devel- 
opment. At  the  same  time  we  ought  to  have  some  definite 
notion  of  what  we  wish  them  to  be  when  they  go  forth  from 
the  influence  of  the  schools. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  set  up  an  ideal  of  what  we  desire 
the  boys  and  girls  to  become.  We  would  have  them  strong 
in  character,  independent  in  thought,  reliable,  honest, 

75 


76  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

courteous,  with  faces  turned  toward  the  best  things  in  life. 
Nature  study  if  properly  taught  will  aid  in  bringing  about 
these  results.  It  is  exceptionally  adapted  to  lead  boys  and 
girls  to  become  inquirers  after  truth  and  the  true  relations 
of  things,  to  acquire  a  reverence  for  life  and  living  things, 
to  gain  patience  and  self-control  in  the  performance  of 
duties,  a  genuine  respect  for  labor,  and  skill  in  handling 
tools.  Besides  these  things  nature  brings  the  children  into 
possession  of  numerous  interesting  and  useful  facts  that 
will  be  of  value  to  them  after  they  leave  the  grades  whether 
they  pursue  their  education  further  in  high  schools  and 
colleges,  or  whether  they  go  out  at  once  into  the  world  of 
business  to  earn  their  living. 

It  is  far  easier,  however,  to  declare  what  we  desire  the 
children  to  become  than  it  is  to  form  any  accurate  concep- 
tion of  what  the  children  really  are  at  any  period  in  their 
school  life,  and  what  nature  study  has  to  offer  that  fits  their 
needs  at  this  particular  stage  of  their  development.  In- 
dividual children  of  the  same  age  or  in  the  same  grade 
differ  greatly  from  one  another  in  natural  powers,  in  abil- 
ity to  grasp  new  ideas,  and  in  quickness  of  thought  and 
action.  In  spite  of  these  differences  children  have  cer- 
tain characteristics  which  for  the  most  part  are  common 
to  all  and  which  make  possible  a  workable  course  in 
nature  study. 

Primary  grades.  —  Primary  children  are  interested 
chiefly  in  activities,  especially  those  activities  in  which 
they  may  participate.  In  fact,  it  is  by  this  participation 
that  most  of  their  ideas  are  gained  and  fixed.  They  are 
interested  in  whole  objects,  not  in  parts;  in  large  things 
rather  than  small  ones;  in  the  useful  rather  than  in  those 


THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE   STUDY  77 

objects  that  seem  to  be  of  no  service.  Their  interest  in 
activities  and  objects  is  short  lived.  They  do  not  relate 
their  experiences  to  the  past,  or  project  them  into  the 
future.  They  live  in  the  present — either  in  their  own  real 
experiences  or  in  a  world  of  fancy  built  by  their  active 
imaginations.  As  to  their  knowledge,  it  has  been  acquired 
largely  in  connection  with  their  home  environment.  They 
are  acquainted  with  the  activities  of  the  members  of  their 
own  family,  the  keeping  of  the  home  in  order,  and  the 
providing  for  the  needs  of  the  household.  They  know 
the  animals  about  the  home  and,  perhaps,  a  few  of  the 
plants  of  yard  and  garden. 

When  we  consider  what  primary  children  know,  in  the 
light  of  what  they  are,  it  seems  that  we  have  something 
tangible  on  which  to  base  an  intelligent  outline  for  their 
nature  work.  At  the  same  time  we  have  an  excellent  op- 
portunity to  keep  the  home  life  and  the  school  life  in  close 
touch  with  each  other  and  thus  prevent  forming  the  gap 
that  so  often  exists  between  those  two  great  factors  in  the 
education  of  children. 

In  carrying  out  the  above  principles  we  may  begin  our 
work  by  directing  the  children's  attention  to  those  things 
which  nature  contributes  toward  their  needs  and  the  needs 
of  the  family.  This  brings  about  a  visit  to  the  garden  with 
a  simple  study  of  vegetables,  of  fruits  and  grains  used  for 
food,  and  of  the  methods  of  gathering,  storing,  and  pre- 
serving these.  It  suggests  a  better  acquaintance  with  the 
animals  that  aid  in  the  preparation  of  foods.  This  in 
turn  leads  to  a  study  of  the  care  of  domestic  animals  and 
household  pets.  In  much  the  same  way  shelter  and  cloth- 
ing may  be  studied  as  well  as  trees,  birds,  and  other  wild 


78  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

nature  that  appeals  to  children  of  this  age.  All  the  while 
the  activities  of  the  children  are  brought  into  play  in  the 
actual  gathering  and  storing  of  vegetables,  fruits,  and  seeds, 
in  planting  seeds,  and  caring  for  their  plants,  clay  model- 
ing, making  playhouses,  sewing,  etc. 

As  children  grow  older  their  outlook  upon  the  world 
becomes  broader.  They  begin  to  see  interrelations  and 
interdependence  among  objects  in  the  nature  world. 
They  see  themselves  as  a  part  of  this  living,  working  uni- 
verse. As  a  result  new  relations  are  established  between 
them  and  their  environment.)  They  feel  a  consciousness 
of  power  in  the  midst  of  their  surroundings.  They  are 
interested  in  the  life  of  the  community  as  well  as  in  the 
family,  in  the  industries  going  on  around  them,  in  machinery, 
how  it  works  and  how  things  are  made.  They  are  anxious 
to  make  things  themselves,  to  try  new  projects,  to  handle 
tools.  They  are  restless  both  in  mind  and  body  and  are 
desirous  of  working  out  the  problems  that  come  to  them, 
not  by  abstract  reasoning  so  much  as  by  manipulating 
concrete  objects.  They  do  not  mind  hard  tasks,  but 
they  must  feel  the  desirability  of  doing  the  things  they  are 
asked  to  do. 

Nature  study,  if  wisely  and  judiciously  handled,  may 
guide  these  impulses  and  desires  of  the  child  so  that  the 
results  will  be  healthy,  vigorous  growth  and  development. 
The  garden,  orchard,  farm  crop,  and  forest,  with  all  their 
accompanying  wealth  of  animal  life,  as  well  as  simple 
physical  phenomena  and  appliances  encountered  about 
the  home  and  school,  offer  abundant  materials  that  seem 
to  fit  the  needs  of  the  intermediate  grades.  This  material 
gives  the  children  an  opportunity  not  only  to  work  with 


THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE   STUDY  79 

hands  as  well  as  minds,  a  thing  which  appeals  greatly  to 
them  at  this  age,  but  to  acquire  habits  of  careful,  thought- 
ful application,  and  a  sense  of  responsibility  which  results 
in  the  trustworthiness  we  would  have  every  boy  and  girl 
possess.  It  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  any  other  period 
in  the  life  of  the  child  when  the  feeling  of  responsibility 
can  be  as  well  and  as  permanently  developed  as  in  the 
intermediate  grades. 

Grammar  grades. — When  the  children  have  reached 
the  grammar  grades  their  experiences  are  becoming  more 
unified ;  their  knowledge  grouped  into  larger  wholes.  They 
have  discovered  something  of  the  laws  that  govern  life 
and  living  things.  They  realize  that  to  a  certain  degree 
they  may  control  natural  processes.  They  have  become 
to  some  extent  investigators  desiring  to  search  out  the 
truth  of  things  for  themselves.  They  recognize  more 
than  ever  before  that  they  are  a  part  of  the  social  order 
in  which  they  live  and  work,  and  begin  to  appreciate  the 
necessity  of  cooperation  with  their  fellows. 

Because  of  the  above  characteristics  certain  phases  of 
the  nature  work  will  appeal  strongly  to  children  of  gram- 
mar-school age.  They  will  enjoy  working  out  some  of 
the  more  intricate  problems  that  the  nature  world  pre- 
sents. They  are  ready  to  try  some  simple  experiments 
in  plant  breeding,  to  test  some  of  the  fundamental 
relations  which  exist  between  soil  conditions  and  plant 
life,  to  plan  original  designs  for  the  artistic  arrangement 
of  plants  for  ornamental  purposes.  They  are  prepared 
also  to  group  together,  according  to  common  character- 
istics, the  plants  and  animals  they  have  become  ac- 
quainted with. 


8o  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

Progressive  work. — Throughout  the  entire  course  the 
material  selected  gives  ample  opportunity  to  plan  the  work 
along  lines  of  certain  fundamental  principles  so  that  it 
will  not  be  desultory,  but  progressive  -and  cumulative. 
To  illustrate,  the  study  of  plant  propagation  is  begun  in 
the  primary  grades  where  the  children  plant  large,  easily 
grown  seeds,  water  and  care  for  the  plants.  In  the  inter- 
mediate grades  seed  propagation  is  continued,  but  here 
the  children  work  out  some  of  the  principles  upon  which 
germination  and  plant  growth  depend.  Other  methods 
of  propagation  are  taken  up  by  the  respective  grades  with 
reference' to  the  difficulties  they  present.  Plants  are  grown 
from  bulbs,  soft-wood  cuttings,  tuber  and  root  cuttings, 
runners,  layers,  taproots,  buds,  and  finally  in  the  grammar 
grades  by  grafts  and  hard-wood  cuttings. 
^While  adaptability  to  the  child  should  always  be  the 
first  consideration  in  the  choice  of  material  and  the  method 
of  its  presentation,  the  natural  relations  which  exist  among 
objects  and  phenomena  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  ar- 
ranging an  outline. 

Instead  of  studying  weeds,  insects,  mammals,  etc.,  as 
isolated  topics,  they  should  be  taken  up  in  connection  with 
special  plants  or  animals  with  which  they  are  closely  asso- 
ciated ecologically  or  economically.  This  organization  of 
material  unifies  the  work  and  makes  it  much  more  valuable 
from  an  educative  standpoint. 

While  the  hope  of  fitting  the  nature  work  to  the  exact 
needs  of  the  child  at  every  step  in  his  development  will, 
perhaps,  never  be  fully  realized,  yet,  if  the  work  is  planned 
and  carried  out  along  lines  of  the  growing  intelligence  and 
sympathies,  it  will  fulfill  its  mission.  It  will  leave  the  child 


THE   CHILD   AND  NATURE   STUDY  8 1 

better  equipped  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  life,  better  dis- 
ciplined, physically,  mentally,  and  morally  to  do  work  in 
the  world,  and  it  will  leave  an  abiding  interest  in  nature 
which  stimulates  self-resourcefulness,  and  makes  the  world 
in  every  aspect  always  a  most  interesting  and  enjoyable 
place  of  residence. 


PART  TWO 
CHAPTER   VIII 

TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND  SEASONS 

[Course  used  in  the  Training  School  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal 
University.] 

THE  course  is  based  primarily  on  the  relation  of  the 
child  to  its  environment.  In  the  following  outline  of 
material  the  repetition  of  topics  is  avoided  in  the  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  grades,  but  topics  used  in  the  pri- 
mary grades  are  sometimes  used  again  in  the  higher  grades, 
the  manner  of  treatment  being  of  course  very  different. 
Except  for  the  seasonal  divisions  no  attempt  at  chronolog- 
ical order  is  made. 

FIRST   GRADE 

Fall. — Food:  Observation  and  some  participation  in  the 
gathering  and  storage  of  beans,  beets,  tomatoes,  potatoes, 
and  squash;  the  flowers  and  seeds  of  nasturtium,  balsam, 
and  four-o'clock  are  also  gathered  in  the  garden;  visit  to  a 
farm;  the  gathering  and  storage  of  corn;  visit  barn,  granary, 
and  corncrib  to  observe  storage  of  crops;  observe  condi- 
tion of  fields  after  removal  of  crops;  fall  plowing;  care  of 
cows,  horses,  and  chickens;  turkey  in  connection  with 
Thanksgiving. 

82 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      83 

Clothing:  Father's  work  in  buying;  mother's  work  in 
making;  changes  of  clothing  as  related  to  weather;  care. 

Shelter:  Care  of  the  school  desk;  of  the  room  by  com- 
mittees; of  the  home;  sweeping  and  dusting  without  raising 
dust;  care  of  tools  and  toys;  cleaning  shoes  before  going  into 
the  house. 

Miscellaneous:'  Migration  of  robins  and  grackles;  study 
of  individual  trees,  especially  norway  maple,  oak,  and  tulip 
tree;  uses  of  them  made  by  man;  observe  leaves  and  general 
contour  of  tree;  the  coloring  and  fall  of  the  leaves;  such 
changes  in  the  vegetation  and  landscape  as  appeal  to  the 
children's  interest;  keep  a  calendar  noting  condition  of  sky, 
direction  of  wind,  and  temperature  from  day  to  day. 

Correlate  work  with  clay  molding  and  drawing  especially 
in  connection  with  vegetables,  flowers,  and  trees;  with  sewing 
in  connection  with  clothing;  with  construction  work  by 
shaping  houses  in  sand. 

Winter. — Food:  Visit  a  cellar;  note  stored  foods  and  the 
manner  of  keeping;  the  effects  of  freezing  on  fruits  and 
vegetables;  visit  grocery  store;  observe  common  foods  in  the 
store  and  how  they  are  kept;  use,  care,  and  habits  of  the 
cow;  make  butter  and  cheese;  the  milkman,  his  work  and 
his  relation  to  the  community,  suggesting  social  relation- 
ships wider  than  the  family  ones;  cook  apples  and  cran- 
berries; make  candy. 

Clothing:  Adjustment  to  new  weather  conditions;  visit 
dry  goods  store  as  the  source  of  materials  from  which 
clothes  are  made;  distinguish  between  wool,  cotton,  and 
silk;  sew  articles  for  actual  use;  visit  shoemaker  at  work; 
consider  source  of  leather. 

Shelter:  Heating  of  houses,  with  emphasis  on  fuel  rather 


84  NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

than  methods  of  heating;  the  local  supply  and  home  storage 
and  preparation  of  fuel  and  kindling;  candles,  lamps,  gas, 
and  electric  lights  as  different  means  of  lighting  homes; 
molding  of  candles;  uses  of  water  in  our  homes;  distinguish 
between  well  and  cistern  water;  cleanliness  of  house,  cloth- 
ing, and  body;  the  carpenter's  work;  lumber  yard  and  hard- 
ware store  as  sources  of  his  materials;  make  and  furnish  a 
doll's  house. 

Miscellaneous:  Squirrel,  his  home,  habits,  and  relations 
to  man;  same  of  bluejay  and  cat,  with  observations  of  all 
three;  wild  relatives  of  the  cat;  observation  of  pine  tree  on 
campus;  consideration  of  its  uses;  trim  a  Christmas  tree, 
using  if  possible  candles  made  by  class  and  decorations 
prepared  in  hand  work. 

Spring. — Food:  Plant  seeds  in  eggshells  to  take  to 
home  or  school  garden  and  transplant;  participation  in  the 
preparation  of  the  class  garden  beds,  which  are  not  assigned 
to  individual  children  in  this  grade  but  to  groups;  plant 
four-o'clocks,  nasturtiums,  radish,  lettuce,  and  beans;  care 
of  the  growing  plants;  spring  work  of  the  farmer;  visit  to 
fields;  plowing  and  sowing;  preparation  of  the  radishes 
and  lettuce  for  the  home  table. 

Clothing:  The  putting  off  of  heavy  clothing  and  its 
storage  for  the  summer;  care  of  the  new  spring  clothes. 

Shelter:  Removal  of  storm  doors;  putting  up  of  screens 
and  awnings;  housecleaning;  special  cleaning  of  desks, 
chairs,  and  blackboards;  make  some  new  furnishings  for 
the  dollhouse. 

Miscellaneous:  Arrival  of  birds,  especially  robin,  red- 
head, grackle,  flicker,  bluebird,  and  others  which  especially 
attract  the  children;  watch  feeding  and  nest-building  as 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND  SEASONS      85 

circumstances  permit;  listen  for  song;  the  leafing  of  the 
trees,  especially  of  those  observed  in  the  fall;  dandelion; 
violet;  observation  in  the  class  wild-flower  patch;  raise  a 
brood  of  chickens;  observe  Arbor  Day;  plant  a  class  tree. 


SECOND    GRADE 

Fall.— Food:  Continue  the  observation  of  plants  started 
in  school  garden  in  previous  spring,  gathering  fruits  and 
seeds;  gather  seeds  of  balsam,  phlox,  and  sunflower  for 
next  spring's  planting;  storage  of  seeds  for  winter;  squashes 
and  pumpkins  in  connection  with  Thanksgiving,  saving 
seeds  for  spring  planting;  fall  marketing  of  farm  crops; 
visit  an  elevator;  cornmeal,  hominy,  breakfast  foods,  and 
corns  tar  ch  as  corn  products;  use  of  corn  in  stock  feeding; 
similar  study  of  wheat  and  oats  products;  make  simplest 
form  of  bread  by  mixing  meal  or  flour  with  water  and  salt 
and  baking;  preparation  of  meal  or  flour  by  grinding  grains. 

Clothing:  Cotton;  study  of  the  plant  in  the  garden, 
gathering  bolls,  picking  out  seeds,  and  observing  the  fibers 
of  raw  cotton;  the  story  of  cotton  told  with  pictures;  spin- 
ning, weaving,  and  dyeing;  children  weave  on  a  primitive 
loom  and  use  dyes;  wool;  observation  of  sheep;  food; 
manner  of  cropping;  care;  habits;  compare  with  cows;  how 
is  the  wool  obtained?  story  of  shearing  with  pictures;  ob- 
servation of  the  preparation  of  wool  for  spinning  and  weav- 
ing; children  weave. 

Shelter:  Materials  used  in  making  homes;  lumber,  nails, 
brick,  and  stone;  observe  the  construction  of  a  building 
or  a  carpenter  at  work ;  children  make  small  bricks,  mix 
mortar,  and  build  a  wall  of  their  brick. 


86  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Miscellaneous:  Review  of  trees  studied  in  first  grade; 
add  soft  maple,  chestnut,  and  basswood;  robin,  bluebird, 
and  bluejay,  and  other  conspicuous  birds  which  may 
especially  attract  attention  on  excursions. 

Winter. — Food:  Study  of  Eskimo;  compare  food  of 
Eskimo  with  our  food;  uses  of  refrigerator;  make  ice 
cream;  food  of  Indians. 

Clothing:  Eskimo  clothing;  materials  used;  how  sewed; 
dress  an  Eskimo  doll;  Indian  clothing;  weave  a  small 
blanket;  dress  Indian  doll. 

Shelter:  Eskimo  house;  materials;  how  lighted?  how 
heated?  comparison  with  our  own  homes;  make  an  Eskimo 
house  out  of  salt;  make  an  Eskimo  lamp  out  of  clay;  snow 
as  shelter  to  vegetation  in  our  own  climate;  make  Indian 
wigwam. 

Miscellaneous:  Make  Indian  cradleboard,  quiver, 
canoe,  and  simple  basket;  simple  pottery  work;  Eskimo 
dog,  its  use  and  place  in  the  home;  our  dog,  his  relations 
to  us,  his  habits,  and  our  care  of  him;  wild  relatives  of  the 
dog;  winter  birds,  especially  chickadee  and  nuthatch;  place 
suet  on  trees  near  schoolhouse  for  them;  rabbit,  its  winter 
home,  habits,  and  relation  to  man;  observation  of  tame 
rabbits;  tap  soft  maple  trees  near  schoolhouse;  make 
syrup  and  sugar. 

Spring. — Foody  clothing,  and  shelter  of  Arab;  compare 
with  ours  and  those  of  Eskimo  and  Indian;  make  Arab 
tent;  dress  Arab  doll;  place  of  the  horse  in  the  Arab's  home. 

Horse:  What  it  does  for  us;  habits  of  feeding,  resting, 
and  exercising;  different  kinds  of  horses;  our  care  of  the 
horse. 

Garden:  Children  help  in  the  preparation  of  beds,  but 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      87 

individual  beds  are  not  assigned  until  the  third  grade;  plant 
phlox,  sunflower,  balsam,  peas,  squash  or  pumpkin,  and 
onions ;  also  repeat  plants  of  first  year  if  the  children  show 
a  desire  to  do  so;  peas  and  squash  seeds  planted  in  egg- 
shells or  small  pots  to  transplant  into  home  or  school  gar- 
den; preparation  of  the  early  vegetables  for  the  market; 
visit  to  spring  vegetable  market. 

Birds:  Note  arrival  of  common  birds;  special  study  of 
blue] ay  with  reference  to  color  markings;  study  of  robin's 
nest  removed  from  tree  after  brood  has  been  raised;  the 
duck;  raise  a  brood  of  ducks. 

Trees:  Soft  maple;  flowers,  fruit,  and  leaves,  noting  time 
of  appearance  as  compared  with  other  trees;  plant  some  of 
the  seeds  to  find  whether  they  germinate  the  first  season 
or  not;  horse-chestnut;  basswood. 

THIRD    GRADE 

Fall. — Garden:  Continue  study  of  plants  started  in 
previous  spring;  select  the  best  tomatoes  for  seed  and 
prepare  seed  for  planting  next  spring;  gather  seeds  of  aster, 
sweet  corn,  and  sweet  peas;  study  of  sweet  pea  plants, 
having  in  view  especially  how  they  scatter  their  seed  and 
how  they  climb;  plant  hyacinth  bulbs  in  pots  for  forcing 
and  plant  out  of  doors  in  home  and  school  gardens  for 
spring  blooming;  start  geranium  cuttings  from  plants  on 
the  campus  to  be  transplanted  and  taken  home  for  winter 
blooming;  observe  wild  asters  and  wild  sunflowers  in  com- 
parison with  the  cultivated  varieties. 

In  this  and  all  later  grades  the  children  visit  the  school 
garden  in  the  early  jail,  when  it  is  at  its  best,  to  choose  as 


88  NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

they  like  and  gather  under  direction  flower  and  vegetable 
seeds  for  planting  in  the  following  spring  in  the  home 
gardens. 

Birds:  Note  especially  those  studied  in  the  previous 
spring;  determine  how  late  into  the  fall  they  may  be  seen; 
pigeon;  home;  habits  of  feeding;  nesting;  observation  of  the 
pigeons  around  the  building;  the  kinds  of  pigeons;  their 
relation  to  man;  caged  pigeons  for  a  time  in  the  school- 
room. 

Trees:  Study  of  the  nut  trees  in  Normal;  walnut,  butter- 
nut, and  chestnut;  observe  polished  walnut  and  consider 
its  uses  in  furniture  and  finishings;  nut  trees  in  the  woods 
in  this  part  of  Illinois,  especially  the  hickory  nut;  what 
animals  eat  nuts?  plant  nuts;  visit  grocery  store  to  observe 
imported  nuts;  uses  of  the  cocoanut,  the  largest  of  nuts. 

Insects:  Observation  of  insects  in  connection  with  the 
tree  and  garden  studies;  blister  beetles  on  asters;  what  are 
they  doing?  butterflies  on  garden  flowers  and  in  campus; 
what  are  they  doing?  are  there  many  different  kinds? 
watch  the  woolly  bear  caterpillar  and  the  tiger  caterpillar 
feeding  on  plants;  place  a  few  of  these  in  a  terrarium;  feed 
and  watch  them  spin  their  cocoons,  and  preserve  these  for 
next  spring;  open  one  cocoon  to  see  what  change  has  taken 
place  in  the  caterpillar;  study  cecropia  moth  in  same  way; 
ants;  note  their  homes  on  the  campus;  watch  for  the  swarms 
of  flying  ants  that  come  out  of  their  homes  on  warm  days 
in  October;  arrange  an  ant  colony  in  the  schoolroom. 

Miscellaneous:  Care  of  the  yards  in  fall;  the  raking  and 
burning  of  leaves;  observe  the  leaf  mold  under  the  pines; 
what  becomes  of  the  leaves  which  are  not  raked  and 
burned?  observe  the  final  work  in  the  garden  in  clearing 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      89 

off  and  preparing  the  ground  for  spring;  observe  frost 
effects  on  plants  in  the  garden  and  on  the  campus;  what 
shall  be  done  with  valuable  plants  which  are  slightly 
frosted?  what  can  be  done  to  prevent  the  killing  of  plants 
by  fall  frosts  ?  observe  the  broom  corn  and  winter  wheat 
growing  in  the  garden  in  connection  with  these  topics  in 
geography. 

Winter. — Biological:  English  sparrow;  goldfish  in 
aquarium  in  schoolroom;  consider  in  connection  with  the 
topic  "fish  as  food"  in  the  geography  work;  observe  activ- 
ities, manner  of  feeding,  and  gross  structure;  Easter  lily 
bulbs  planted  in  the  greenhouse;  trees,  especially  poplars, 
willows,  and  evergreens  in  connection  with  the  effects  of 
heavy  snows  and  frost. 

In  this  and  in  all  succeeding  grades  during  the  winter 
term  preliminary  work  in  the  greenhouse  is  done  in  connec- 
tion with  the  plants  to  be  studied  in  the  spring.  Cuttings 
are  made,  seeds  planted,  and  some  transplanting  is  done, 
A  garden  and  greenhouse  calendar  is  furnished  to  show 
when  all  such  work  is  due. 

Physical:  Thermometer;  burning  of  wood  and  coal 
consuming  both  volatile  and  solid  matter;  construction  of 
stoves,  noting  especially  the  air  currents  and  the  use  of 
dampers;  use  of  chimneys;  the  two  systems  of  heating  used 
in  the  schoolroom;  ventilation  of  the  room;  heating  and 
ventilating  system  of  the  main  building;  the  evaporation  of 
water  in  a  few  very  simple  quantitative  experiments  show- 
ing the  effects  of  extent  of  surface,  temperature,  and  air 
currents  upon  the  rate;  the  effect  of  wind  upon  the  rate  of 
drying  of  clothes,  muddy  walks,  etc. ;  observations  of  wind, 
clouds,  rain,  floods,  snow,  hail,  and  frost  especially  in 


90  NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

relation  to  man  and  his  activities,  such  as  the  various 
effects  produced  by  these  agencies  upon  transportation  and 
crops,  using  local  instances  as  examples;  as  storms  occur, 
comment  and  observation  upon  their  destructive  effects 
on  trees,  etc.  For  one  month,  beginning  with  the  day 
the  new  moon  is  first  to  be  observed,  each  pupil  sketches 
its  appearance  about  sunset  in  the  first  half  of  the  month 
and  about  sunrise  in  the  second  half.  The  sketches  are 
made  about  every  other  day.  When  the  observations  are 
completed  an  explanation  is  brought  out  by  the  teacher, 
new  moon,  first  quarter,  full  moon,  and  third  quarter  be- 
ing taken  into  consideration.  Observation  of  the  Great 
Dipper,  Little  Dipper,  Orion,  the  Pleiades,  and  the  Pole- 
star.  The  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  the  stars  in  relation 
to  the  Polestar  is  observed. 

Spring. — Garden:  Indoors  the  children  decide  upon  the 
arrangement  of  the  flowers  in  their  gardens;  simple  plats 
are  drawn  by  the  children  upon  which  the  arrangement  is 
indicated;  the  same  is  done  with  plats  of  the  home  gardens 
which  are  brought;  it  is  not  attempted  to  draw  these  plats 
exact  to  scale;  plant  sweet  pea,  pansy,  china  aster,  morning 
glory;  tomato,  sweet  corn,  leeks,  and  chives;  simple  indoor 
experiments  are  made  to  determine  the  conditions  under 
which  sweet  peas  will  germinate  and  begin  their  growth  to 
best  advantage,  bringing  out  therewith  what  physical  con- 
ditions are  essential  to  germination  and  continued  growth; 
frequent  visits  to  the  school  wild  flower  garden,  noting  the 
changes  in  appearance  from  one  week  until  the  next,  and 
the  effects  of  weather  upon  the  rate  of  development; 
mandrake,  bloodroot,  buttercup,  and  spring  beauty  are 
especially  watched;  in  connection  with  mandrake  and 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE   BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      91 

bloodroot  observation  is  made  of  the  division  of  the  plant 
body  into  root,  stem,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit;  sketches  of 
these  are  made  and  their  general  functions  brought  out  in 
so  far  as  can  be  done,  using  only  the  observations  of  the 
children  as  a  basis;  Easter  lily,  started  in  greenhouse  in 
winter,  is  continued,  being  observed  from  time  to  time 
throughout  its  development;  the  flower  of  this  plant  is 
used  to  introduce  the  observation  of  petals,  stamens, 
pollen,  and  pistil  without  any  attempt  as  yet  at  explana- 
tion of  their  functions. 

Trees:  Indoor  work  on  twigs  of  willow  and  peach  early 
in  the  season;  observe  the  spring  aspect  of  the  nut  trees 
studied  in  the  fall;  watch  for  the  growth  of  seedlings; 
become  acquainted  with  box-elder,  sassafras,  redbud,  and 
mulberry,  relating  the  last  to  work  with  silkworm  indicated 
below. 

Birds:  Flicker,  redhead,  sapsucker,  and  any  other 
woodpeckers  seen;  special  study  of  the  flicker,  comparing 
other  woodpeckers  with  this  one;  note  where  it  is  found,  its 
habits  of  moving  about,  feeding,  and  nesting;  its  value  to 
man;  keep  bird  calendar;  learn  to  recognize  bird  notes  of 
the  birds  known  by  sight. 

A  few  minutes  are  taken  every  day  or  two  in  this  and 
succeeding  grades  to  discuss  what  new  bird  activities  have 
been  lately  noted  by  pupils  or  teacher. 

Insects:  As  in  the  fall,  they  are  here  considered  inform- 
ally as  they  are  encountered  in  connection  with  plant  study; 
observation  of  the  ant  colonies  on  the  campus;  cocoons  and 
chrysalids  put  away  in  the  fall  are  watched  for  the  emerg- 
ence of  moths  and  butterflies;  study  of  the  silkworm;  de- 
velopment from  the  eggs,  occasional  visits  to  the  large  pond 


92  NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

on  the  campus  and  observation  of  the  insect  life  there; 
dragon  fly  larvae  brought  into  the  schoolroom  and  observed 
in  an  aquarium. 

Observation  of  oats  in  the  garden  in  connection  with 
the  geography  work  upon  this  topic. 

FOURTH   GRADE 

Fall. — Garden:  Continue  the  study  of  the  plants  started 
in  the  previous  spring;  harvest  tomatoes;  decide  which 
varieties  are  preferable  for  food;  gather  seeds  of  aster, 
pansy,  and  sweet  pea;  in  anticipation  of  the  work  of  the 
following  spring,  observe  the  dahlia  roots  and  the  method 
of  storing  them  for  the  winter;  gather  seeds  of  petunia, 
ten-weeks'-stock,  wishbone  flower  (torenia),  and  marigold; 
morning  glory  as  a  type  of  annual  climber;  compare  with 
sweet  pea  as  to  methods  of  climbing;  cuttings  of  coleus  to 
pot  and  take  home  for  winter;  plant  tulip  and  narcissus 
bulbs  at  home  and  school;  appearance  of  currant  and 
gooseberry  in  fall;  propagate  by  layering. 

Birds:  Continue  study  of  woodpeckers,  adding  nut- 
hatches and  brown  creepers;  note  the  different  methods 
of  these  birds  in  climbing  the  trunks  of  trees;  determine 
which  of  these  migrate  in  the  fall. 

Trees:  Continue  study  of  those  begun  in  the  spring;  add 
locust  and  larch. 

Insects:  Tomato  worm  if  found  on  the  tomatoes  grown 
by  the  class;  work  out  life  history;  ladybugs  as  found  in 
the  garden;  what  are  they  doing?  bees  as  honeymakers; 
specially  constructed  beehive  with  swarm  in  the  school- 
room. 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE   BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      93 

Miscellaneous:  Observe  flax  and  sorghum  in  the  garden 
in  connection  with  the  geography  work  on  these  topics; 
burdock  as  a  type  of  weed;  compare  thistle  and  wild  carrot; 
the  methods  of  exterminating  them. 

Winter. — Biological:  Crow;  habits;  detailed  study  of 
the  feathers;  relation  to  man;  evergreen  trees  on  the  cam- 
pus, observation  to  be  continued  in  the  early  spring  when 
the  new  cones  are  ripe. 

Physical:  Water  supply  of  the  school;  pump  connec- 
tions; observation  of  differences  in  pressure  at  basement 
and  third  story;  basement  connections;  air  cushions;  fau- 
cets; city  water  system;  pumping  station;  gauge;  stand- 
pipe;  the  laying  of  mains,  if  available;  connections;  cut- 
offs; fire  plugs;  city  fire  limits;  water  heating  cylinders 
and  water  fronts  in  stoves;  Normal  and  Bloomington  fire 
departments;  city  sewer  system;  house  drainage;  sinks; 
traps;  vents;  catch-basins;  wells;  the  water  plane;  percola- 
tion of  soil  moisture;  suction  forces  and  lift  pumps;  the 
siphon;  buoyancy  of  liquids. 

Spring. — Garden:  Potato;  indoor  study  of  the  parts  of 
the  tuber;  the  cutting  of  tubers  for  planting;  discussion  of 
methods  of  planting;  measure  the  amount  to  be  planted; 
potato  scab  observed  if  present  and  the  method  of  com- 
bating it  discussed;  experiments  in  connection  with  potato 
culture;  plant  carrot,  salsify,  onions,  seeds,  and  bulblets, 
lima  beans,  petunia,  torenia,  ten-weeks'-stock,  marigold, 
and  dahlia;  garden  plats  drawn  as  indicated  for  preceding 
grade;  continue  studies  of  tulip,  gooseberry,  and  currant 
started  in  the  fall. 

Wild  Flowers:  How  do  these  plants  succeed  in  sending 
up  their  leaves  and  flowers  so  early  ?  continue  observations 


94  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

and  discussions  upon  the  general  functions  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  plants,  limiting  this  work  to  points  observable 
by  the  children  and  readily  appreciable  deductions  made 
by  them  from  observed  facts;  note  the  various  devices 
shown  for  securing  the  light  relation  as  indicated  by 
variations  in  leaf  pattern  and  position;  observation  of  the 
parts  of  the  flowers;  discussion  of  preservation  of  wild 
flowers  and  discouragement  of  reckless  picking;  hepatica, 
Indian  turnip,  violet,  and  trillium;  observation  of  the  two 
kinds  of  flowers  in  the  Indian  turnip ;  what  are  flowers  for  ? 
what  becomes  of  the  pollen  ?  irregularity  of  flower  parts  in 
the  violet. 

Soil:  Observation  of  clay,  sand,  gravel,  humus,  and 
garden  soil;  what  things  are  found  in  garden  soil?  plant 
seeds  in  different  kinds  of  soil  and  note  effect  on  growth; 
careful  observation  of  relation  of  roots  to  soil;  experiments 
showing  the  turning  of  roots  toward  moisture;  root  hairs; 
observation  of  root  tip  under  microscope. 

Trees:  American  elm;  general  form;  flower,  fruit,  and 
leaves,  noting  time  of  appearance  and  maturity  of  each; 
how  long  does  it  take  to  mature  the  fruit?  adaptation  for 
dissemination  of  seeds;  plant  seeds;  make  acquaintance  of 
other  elms  on  campus,  English,  Scotch,  and  Camperdown; 
hackberry;  sumach;  haws;  learn  to  recognize  elm  seedlings 
and  look  for  them  along  walks  and  fences;  why  should  they 
occur  here? 

Insects:  Continue  observation  of  ladybugs;  how  have 
they  spent  the  winter?  potato  beetle;  relation  of  ladybugs 
to  these;  sawfly  larvae  on  gooseberry  and  currant;  work 
out  their  life  history;  look  for  the  natural  foes  of  these 
insects;  observe  aphids  on  cockscomb  galls  on  elm  leaves. 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE   BY   GRADES  AND   SEASONS      95 

Birds:  Continue  study  of  crow;  oriole,  rose-breasted 
grosbeak,  cardinal  grosbeak,  and  wood  thrush;  excursions 
on  the  campus  outside  of  school  hours  may  be  necessary 
for  the  observation  of  these;  note  habits  of  feeding  and 
nesting;  relation  of  rose-breasted  grosbeak  to  the  potato 
beetle;  indoor  study  of  nests  of  the  birds  observed. 

In  this  as  in  other  grades  the  effort  is  made  to  make 
detailed  study  of  certain  birds,  but  the  teacher  must  be  gov- 
erned in  this  part  of  the  work  primarily  by  circumstances. 
Any  bird  not  previously  studied  is  to  be  studied  at  any  time 
that  conditions  for  such  study  are  especially  favorable. 

FIFTH    GRADE 

Fall. — Garden:  Continue  study  of  potato;  harvest  the 
crop;  measure  and  compare  with  the  amount  planted  in 
the  spring;  check  up  on  the  experiments  started  at  that 
time;  determine  what  hills  have  given  the  greatest  yield 
and  which  potatoes  are  desirable  to  save  for  "seed"; 
dig  dahlia  roots  and  put  away  for  winter;  gather  seeds  for 
home  garden  as  indicated  in  earlier  grades;  in  preparation 
for  next  spring,  gather  beet  seeds  and  preserve  a  few  roots 
from  which  to  obtain  seeds  the  next  year;  gather  seeds  of 
salvia,  lobelia,  and  snapdragon  and  put  away  for  next 
spring's  planting;  raspberry  and  blackberry;  condition  of 
the  plants  in  the  fall,  especially  the  canes  that  bore  fruit 
in  the  summer  just  ended;  the  need  for  pruning;  the  ap- 
pearance of  new  stems;  the  number  on  each  plant;  propaga- 
tion by  tip  rooting;  observe  strawberry  plants,  noting  the 
habits  of  growth  and  propagation;  cover  strawberry  beds. 

Trees:  Ash  trees  on  the  campus;  the  oaks  of  the  campus 


96  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

with  study  of  the  fruit;  compare  with  the  native  oaks  in 
neighboring  woods;  distinguish  white  from  red  oak  by  leaf 
characteristics;  compare  acorns  from  several  different  oaks, 
noting  the  different  sizes  and  shapes  of  cup  and  nut;  the 
uses  of  oak  for  furniture  and  finishings,  observing  the 
polished  wood;  observation  of  the  white  birch;  review  of 
the  trees  studied  in  fourth  grade;  plant  peach  seeds  to  get 
seedlings  to  bud  in  the  following  fall;  leaf  coloration  and 
fall;  why  do  not  the  evergreens  shed  their  leaves?  what 
trees  with  needle-shaped  leaves  do  shed  them?  (larches); 
in  what  parts  of  the  leaves  does  the  green  color  remain 
longest?  what  weather  conditions  give  us  the  best  leaf 
coloration?  does  a  sharp  frost  produce  better  coloration? 
does  the  loss  of  the  leaf  leave  a  wound  which  must  be 
healed? 

Birds:  Continue  observation  of  those  studied  in  the 
previous  spring;  report  of  summer  observations  of  these 
birds;  the  thrushes  to  be  seen  in  Normal  during  the  fall 
migration,  hermit,  olive-backed,  and  gray-cheeked;  keep 
a  list  of  the  birds  seen  during  this  term;  study  of  nests  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen;  determine  the  total  number  to  be 
seen  in  the  trees  of  the  campus;  what  trees  are  favorite 
nesting  places  ?  what  trees  appear  to  be  avoided  ?  how  far 
from  the  ground  are  the  majority  of  the  nests?  report  on 
nests  seen  in  other  parts  of  the  town,  or  in  hedges  along  the 
roads. 

Insects:  Grasshoppers  found  in  the  garden  and  on  the 
campus;  how  many  different  kinds?  what  do  they  eat? 
how  do  they  move  about  ?  how  do  they  eat  ?  place  a  few  in  a 
terrarium  in  the  schoolroom  for  observation;  determine  by 
experiment  the  amounts  of  grass  eaten;  determine  how  the 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND  SEASONS      97 

meadow  grasshopper  makes  its  music;  the  snowy  tree 
cricket  found  on  raspberry  bushes;  compare  with  the  black 
cricket;  consider,  as  relatives  of  the  grasshopper,  the  cock- 
roach and  methods  of  exterminating  them  in  houses;  ar- 
range a  few  breeding  cages  to  obtain  eggs  of  the  grasshopper 
and  cricket. 

Winter. — Biological:  Preparation  for  garden  work  by 
planting  seeds  in  greenhouse;  study  of  the  winter  wood- 
peckers, the  hairy  and  the  downy. 

Physical:  Simple  experiments  in  magnetism  and  elec- 
tricity; construction  of  galvanic  cell;  electro-magnets; 
electroplating. 

Spring. — Garden:  Measure  the  fifth  grade  garden  ac- 
curately and  draw  to  scale;  different  methods  of  propagat- 
ing flowering  plants;  plant  salvia,  lobelia,  snapdragon, 
gladiolus,  and  tuberose;  beets;  plant  seeds  and  set  out 
roots;  a  type  of  biennial;  plant  rutabagas,  turnip,  parsnip, 
navy  beans,  mangoes,  parsley;  continue  the  study  of  rasp- 
berry and  blackberry;  strawberry;  uncover  beds;  note 
propagation  by  runners;  flower;  fruit;  culture;  marketing. 

Trees:  The  gray  birch  and  the  paper  birch  studied  at 
intervals  during  the  term;  the  fruit;  the  seeds;  the  wood  in 
furniture  making;  the  uses  of  the  bark;  flowers  and  fruit  of 
beech  and  ash;  dig  up  a  few  of  the  peach  seedlings  planted 
the  previous  fall  to  determine  how  the  young  plants  get  out 
of  the  stone. 

Lawns:  Bluegrass;  observation  of  its  condition  at  the 
beginning  of  spring;  its  habits  of  growth;  the  characteristics 
that  make  it  a  good  lawn  former;  the  care  of  lawns;  how 
to  make  a  good  lawn;  the  selection  of  grass  seed;  test  of 
grass  seed  obtained  in  local  market;  dandelion  as  a  lawn 


98  NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

weed;  habits  of  growth;  root;  flower;  fruit;  what  charac- 
teristics make  it  a  successful  weed  ?  how  should  it  be  com- 
bated ?  its  competition  with  the  bluegrass;  what  advantages 
does  each  possess  over  the  other  ?  to  what  great  plant  family 
does  it  belong  ?  what  are  the  characteristics  of  this  family  ? 
examine  a  flower  head  under  the  dissecting  microscope,  mak- 
ing out  the  external  appearance  of  the  individual  flower; 
observe  centrifugal  maturing  of  flowers;  mark  dandelion 
plants  to  determine  rate  of  maturation  of  floral  heads  and 
fruit;  determine  rate  of  growth  in  length  of  the  scape  after 
floral  maturity;  determine  effect  of  environment  upon 
length  of  scapes;  plantain,  crabgrass,  and  other  lawn  weeds 
which  may  be  encountered  in  abundance;  the  mole  as  an 
enemy  of  the  lawn;  its  habits;  its  special  adaptations  for  its 
mode  of  life.  See  also  grubworm  below. 

Birds:  Brown  thrasher;  wren;  catbird;  make  and  put  up 
boxes  for  the  wrens. 

Encourage  the  pupils  to  continue  observation  upon  these 
birds  especially  during  the  summer  months.  This  applies 
to  summer  studies  o\  the  respective  birds  in  each  grade  and 
under  proper  stimulus  the  interest  appears  to  be  well  main- 
tained through  the  long  vacation. 

Insects:  Grubworms  and  May  beetles;  the  grubworm 
an  enemy  of  the  lawn;  recall  grasshopper  and  cricket  study 
in  this  connection;  roll  worms  on  strawberries;  watch  for 
these  moth  larvae  early  and  remove,  keeping  a  few  in  a 
jar  in  order  to  work  out  the  life  history;  it  is  the  second 
brood  that  does  the  greatest  damage. 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      99 

SIXTH   GRADE 

Fall. — Garden:  Continue  the  study  of  the  plants  set  out 
in  the  spring;  dig  and  house  bulbs;  especial  attention  to 
gladiolus  and  tuberose,  noting  the  growth  that  the  bulbs 
have  made  during  the  season;  flowers  of  torenia  and  salvia; 
correlate  the  structure  of  these  with  the  insects  which  visit 
them  and  consider  in  general  the  service  which  insects 
render  to  plants  as  agents  in  cross  pollination,  cross 
pollination  itself  being  touched  upon  only  incidentally  to 
floral  structure  and  insect  activities;  complete  life  history 
of  the  beet;  observe  the  entire  root  system;  compare  with 
the  sugar  beet;  show  by  experiment  that  sugar  is  present  in 
beet  roots;  gather  seeds  as  usual  for  next  spring's  planting; 
make  soft-wood  cuttings  of  any  plants  desired  to  take 
home  for  winter  blooming;  as  weeds,  pigweed,  purslane, 
and  ragweed. 

Trees:  Bud  the  peach  seedlings  started  the  fall  before; 
peach  tree  culture;  comparative  study  of  cherry  and  plum; 
sycamore,  poplars,  purple  beech,  Kentucky  coffee  tree, 
mountain  ash. 

Birds:  Continue  the  observation  of  those  studied  in  the 
spring;  report  on  summer  observations,  especially  as  to 
wren  and  catbird;  add  goldfinch  and  junco. 

Insects:  Peach  tree  borer;  flies  found  on  the  garden 
plants  as  to  habits  and  food;  soldier  beetles  on  the  garden 
plants  and  on  goldenrod;  the  goldenrod  gall  gnat;  larvae 
of  butterflies  on  borage  and  .sassafras;  keep  these  in  a 
terrarium  and  observe  their  life  histories;  spiders  as  to 
habits,  homes,  and  food. 

Sky  Studies:  The  movements  and  phases  of  the  moon; 


100    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

its  physical  condition;  changes  in  measured  noonday 
altitude  and  in  the  length  of  day  and  night;  the  ecliptic  and 
the  zodiac;  the  apparent  annual  motion  of  the  sun;  the 
rotation  of  the  star  sphere;  the  poles  and  the  equator;  the 
autumn  constellations;  the  milky  way;  the  planets,  noting 
their  changes  of  position;  the  general  plan  of  the  solar 
system;  eclipses  if  one  occurs. 

Winter. — Physical:  Systems  of  lighting  in  common  use; 
construction  and  principles  involved;  incandescent  light; 
arc  light;  kerosene  lamp;  gasoline  lamp;  gasoline  car- 
bureter; acetylene  lamp.  Study  of  petroleum;  crude 
petroleum;  production;  refinement  into  commercial  prod- 
ucts. Coal  gas;  manufacture  and  combustion  of  coal  gas; 
kinds  or  grades  of  coal;  peat,  lignite,  bituminous,  cannel 
and  anthracite.  Sources  of  coal  and  petroleum.  Chem- 
istry of  combustion;  kindling  temperature  and  burning 
point.  Application  of  these  facts  to  lighting  studied  above. 
Brief  reference  to  the  history  of  the  production  of  fire  and 
its  influence  upon  civilization. 

Spring. — Garden:  Plant  sweet  scabious,  gaillardia,  cos- 
mos, several  varieties  of  poppy,  California  poppy;  cabbage, 
broccoli,  cauliflower,  Brussels  sprouts,  kohl-rabi,  kale, 
endive;  coldframe  work  in  preparing  members  of  the 
cabbage  family  for  transplanting;  continue  the  study  of  the 
annual  field  and  garden  weeds  begun  in  the  fall;  complete 
the  work  on  the  budded  peaches;  study  the  flower  of  the 
peach,  cherry,  and  the  plum  as  representatives  of  the  rose 
family  and  compare  with  the  flowers  of  other  members  of 
the  rose  family  in  bloom  at  this  time  of  year;  consider  the 
formation  of  the  fruit  from  the  flower  in  these  fruit  trees; 
note  the  effects  of  weather  on  the  flower  and  fruit  crops, 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE   BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      ioi 

noting  especially  the  effects  of  severe  frost  on  the  fruit  if 
one  occurs. 

Trees:  The  trees  of  the  campus;  general  survey;  history 
of  the  planting  of  the  trees  on  the  campus  which  fifty  years 
ago  was  a  perfectly  treeless  piece  of  prairie;  which  of  these 
trees  are  natives  of  Illinois  ?  group  the  principal  trees  into 
their  botanical  families;  a  special  study  of  catalpa,  planting 
the  seeds,  and  considering  its  value  as  a  tree  to  be  set  out 
on  prairie  soil;  the  planting  of  catalpa  for  railroad  ties  in 
Illinois;  study  of  its  flower;  the  ways  in  which  forests  are 
destroyed;  what  is  being  done  to  renew  the  forests?  con- 
sider the  causes  of  the  treeless  prairies  of  this  region  and 
note  their  distribution;  the  natural  groves  of  the  county; 
compare  three  trees  of  different  kinds  as  to  the  growth 
which  they  make  in  one  season;  using  poplar,  willow  ca- 
talpa, and  oak;  compare  rates  of  growth  by  measurements 
of  year-old  twigs  showing  the  large  differences  in  growth 
rate  between  "hard"  and  "soft"  woods. 

Birds:  Meadow  lark,  bobolink,  purple  martin,  swifts; 
the  value  of  the  meadow  lark  and  the  bobolink  in  the  fields; 
the  value  of  the  martins  and  the  swifts  as  mosquito  and  fly 
destroyers,  observing  habits  before  drawing  conclusions. 

Insects:  Housefly;  its  habits  and  relations  to  man;  work 
out  the  life  history  of  the  mosquito  in  an  aquarium;  study 
the  water  beetles  as  enemies  of  the  mosquito,  watching 
them  in  an  aquarium  which  is  also  stocked  with  mosqui- 
toes; study  any  insects  found  on  the  fruit  trees  as  to  their 
relation  to  these  trees. 

Other  Animals:  Snails  and  slugs  in  relation  to  garden 
plants;  toads,  frogs,  and  salamanders  as  to  habits,  food, 
life  history,  and  relations  to  man. 


102         NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

SEVENTH    GRADE 

Fall. — Garden:  Continue  the  study  of  the  cabbage 
family,  noting  the  parts  used  for  food  in  each  kind;  the 
methods  of  storing  for  winter  use;  special  characteristics 
of  the  flowers  started  in  the  spring,  considering  the  plant 
families  which  they  represent  and  individual  adaptations 
of  structure;  observation  and  study  of  the  uses  of  the  various 
medicinal  plants  and  kitchen  herbs  grown  in  the  garden; 
select  seed  corn  from  home  and  school  garden,  noting  the 
desirable  points  in  stalk  and  ear;  the  methods  of  storing 
seed  corn  for  winter;  make  grape  cuttings  and  store  for 
winter;  the  common  field  weeds,  especially  cocklebur, 
butter-print,  and  mustard;  consider  as  to  structure  of  plant 
body,  floral  characteristics,  and  botanical  relationships; 
students  work  out  the  special  characteristics  which  make 
these  successful  weeds. 

Insects:  The  insect  enemies  of  the  cabbage  family; 
work  out  the  life  history  of  the  cabbage  butterfly  in  the 
schoolroom;  the  braconid  and  chalcis  flies  as  enemies 
of  the  cabbage  butterfly;  aphids  found  on  the  garden  plants 
and  on  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  campus,  the  winter  eggs  of 
aphids  being  frequently  found  in  abundance  on  white  pine 
needles;  the  lacewing  fly,  the  syrphus  fly,  and  the  ladybug 
as  enemies  of  the  aphids. 

Birds:  Phoebe,  pewee,  great-crested  flycatcher,  least 
flycatcher,  and  kingbird  as  members  of  the  flycatcher  fam- 
ily; their  habits  and  value  to  man. 

Weather:  Daily  observation  of  the  weather  conditions, 
at  first  mainly  non-instrumental,  and  later,  when  the  read- 
ing of  the  instruments  is  learned,  with  fuller  instrumental 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE   BY  GRADES  AND   SEASONS      103 

data;  this  work  finally  includes  barometric  pressure,  dry 
and  wet  bulb  reading,  maximum  and  minimum  reading, 
wind  direction  and  estimated  velocity,  clouds  as  to  amount 
and  kind,  precipitation,  and  the  recording  of  dew-point 
and  relative  humidity;  in  connection  with  the  interpreta- 
tion of  observations  and  in  explaining  instruments,  the 
mechanics  of  liquids  and  gases  is  experimentally  studied ; 
study  of  the  weather  maps,  monthly  weather  reports,  and 
mechanics  of  Weather  Bureau;  a  notebook  is  kept. 

Winter. — The  human  body. 

Spring. — Garden:  Corn;  germination  tests  of  the  ears 
gathered  the  previous  fall;  study  of  corn  kernels  as  to 
structure  and  food  content;  corn  culture  with  experiments 
in  school  and  home  gardens;  study  of  corn  as  a  plant  type; 
its  commercial  value;  means  of  improvement  of  the  crop; 
sweet  potato  culture;  raise  plants  in  coldframe  or  green- 
house; melon  family;  watermelon,  muskmelon,  citron,  and 
cucumber;  take  home  for  trial  seeds  of  various  varieties  of 
melon  family;  plant  vinca,  euphorbia,  zinnia,  calliopsis, 
centaurea,  blue  sage;  grape;  habits  of  growth;  flower; 
fruit;  methods  of  pruning  and  spraying;  transplant  grape 
cuttings  made  in  the  previous  fall;  comparative  study  of 
relatives  of  the  grape,  the  five-leaved  ivy,  the  Boston  ivy, 
and  the  wild  grape;  continue  study  of  weeds  begun  in  the 
fall  as  to  their  spring  aspect. 

Soil  Physics:  Ground  water;  ground  air;  experiments  to 
show  the  conservation  of  moisture,  porosity,  capillarity,  and 
air  spaces;  show  the  relation  of  plants  to  soil;  uses  of 
fertilizers. 

Animals:  Earthworm  in  connection  with  soil  study; 
beetles  found  on  the  melon  vines  and  methods  of  combating 


104    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

them;  corn  root  aphis;  plum  curculio,  and  any  other  insects 
found  on  the  garden  plants;  ground  squirrel;  groundhog; 
coon ;  skunk ;  gopher ;  field  mouse ;  the  groups  of  mammals, 
emphasizing  the  study  of  domestic  types  whenever  possible. 
Birds:  Review  the  flycatchers  studied  in  previous  fall; 
shrike;  native  sparrows;  the  value  of  these  to  man;  note  the 
characteristics  of  the  sparrow  family;  group  other  well- 
known  birds  into  their  families,  such  as  thrushes,  mocking- 
bird, blackbird,  woodpecker;  individual  field  work  follow- 
ing outlines  given  by  teacher  and  reports  on  same. 

EIGHTH    GRADE 

Fall. — Garden:  Continue  corn;  check  up  on  the  ex- 
periments worked  out  in  the  home  and  school  gardens; 
observation  of  kaffir  corn  in  the  garden;  uses,  and  com- 
parison of  structure  of  ear  with  other  varieties;  continue 
study  of  melon  family;  reports  on  those  grown  from  special 
seeds  at  home;  comparative  study  of  the  habits,  flowers, 
and  fruits  of  the  members  of  this  family;  sum  up  the 
characteristics  of  the  family;  harvest  the  sweet  potatoes, 
measure,  and  determine  the  yield  per  acre;  make  cuttings 
of  roses;  make  the  acquaintance  of  some  of  the  desirable 
varieties  of  apples  and  pears;  observation  of  these  trees  and 
study  of  general  character;  study  the  clovers,  soy  beans, 
cowpeas,  and  alfalfa  grown  in  the  garden  with  special, 
reference  to  their  effects  upon  soil  fertility;  elements  of  soil 
chemistry  with  experiments. 

Insects:  Insect  enemies  of  the  apple  and  pear;  the  pear- 
slug,  the  cankerworm,  scale  insects,  and  coddling  moth; 
the  insect  enemies  of  other  trees;  white-marked  tussock 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  BY  GRADES  AND  SEASONS      105 

moth,  working  out  the  life  history;  tent  caterpillar;  fall 
web  worm;  any  insects  fbund  on  the  corn  or  melons  and 
the  methods  of  combating;  look  for  their  natural  foes,  as 
parasites,  predaceous  insects,  and  birds;  division  of  labor 
and  care  of  young  among  insects;  mud-dauber,  polistes, 
hornets;  bumblebee  as  related  to  the  pollination  of  red 
clover. 

Birds:  Special  attention  to  the  fall  migrants  from  the 
north,  especially  warblers  and  kinglets;  quail  and  other 
local  game  birds;  their  protection;  the  game  laws  of 
Illinois. 

Fungi:  The  common  mushrooms;  the  smut  on  corn  and 
other  grains;  blight  on  pear  and  apple;  mildew  on  lilac 
or  other  plants;  mold  on  fruit;  tree  fungi;  study  of  the 
methods  of  combating  these  when  injurious. 

Wild  Plants:  Study  of  remnants  of  the  prairie  flora;  the 
special  characteristics  of  these  plants. 

Winter. — The  human  body;  some  simple  experiments 
in  plant  life  in  the  greenhouse,  and  in  bacteriology  in  the 
biology  laboratory. 

Spring. — Garden:  Plant  alternanthera,  Ian  tana,  helio- 
trope, verbena,  other  flowers  selected  by  the  pupils;  okra, 
celery,  eggplant,  spinach,  asparagus;  experimental  work  in 
the  garden  to  determine  methods  of  culture  best  suited  to 
the  local  conditions  of  soil  and  climate;  oats;  test  seed  for 
purity  and  vitality;  experiments  to  determine  the  desirable 
depth  of  planting,  and  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  used  per 
acre;  different  varieties  are  sown  by  different  pupils  in  the 
home  gardens;  graft  apple  trees  and  set  out  in  nursery 
rows;  study  the  culture  of  apple  trees  and  the  history  of 
their  amelioration;  apple  culture  used  to  exemplify  the 


106    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

general  principles  of  horticulture;  acquaintance  with  the 
more  successful  varieties  of  apples;  a  comparative  study 
of  the  pear;  apple  and  pear  industry  in  Illinois;  visits  to  a 
nursery. 

Insects:  Any  insect  pests  encountered  in  connection 
with  the  plant  studies. 

Birds:  The  birds  of  prey;  owls,  sparrow  hawk,  red- 
tailed  hawk,  sharp-shinned  hawk,  and  others;  the  value  of 
birds  of  prey  to  the  farmer;  characteristics  of  these  birds 
as  a  group;  special  study  of  the  migration  of  birds;  con- 
tinue the  study  of  warblers. 

Botany:  The  great  plant  groups;  observation  of  the 
gross  anatomy  of  types  of  algae,  fungi,  liverworts,  mosses, 
fern,  conifers,  monocots,  and  dicots. 


CHAPTER    IX 

TYPICAL   LESSON   PLANS 

THE   COW.— First  Grade 

LITTLE  children  are  interested  in  domestic  animals 
both  because  of  their  large  size  and  their  familiarity  in  the 
home  environment.  In  developing  lessons  for  this  grade 
the  children  have  been  led  during  the  fall  term,  as  in- 
dicated in  the  outline,  to  observe  something  of  the  food, 
shelter,  and  care  of  domestic  animals.  In  the  winter  the 
cow  is  taken  up  for  a  more  detailed  study,  especially  in 
relation  to  food  supply.  The  central  thoughts  are  what 
does  the  cow  do  for  us  and  what  should  we  do  for  the  cow  ? 
If  any  observation  of  cows  was  made  during  the  fall  they 
were  found  feeding  in  pastures.  What  were  they  eating  ? 
How  were  they  eating  ?  Where  are  cows  kept  during  the 
winter?  Draw  upon  the  experiences  and  observations  of 
the  children  for  answers.  If  practicable,  visit  a  barn  where 
a  cow  is  kept  and  let  the  children  see  how  it  is  cared  for. 

What  do  cows  eat  in  winter  ?  Recall  the  fall  study  of 
storing  food  for  animals.  If  a  barn  is  visited  note  all  the 
different  kinds  of  food  stored  here.  Country  children  will 
know  that  sometimes  the  cows  are  allowed  to  roam  about 
through  the  corn  fields  in  winter  days,  eating  the  dry  leaves 
and  stalks,  and  are  sheltered  only  at  night.  Watch  a  cow 
eat.  Does  she  eat  slowly  or  rapidly?  Do  you  ever  see 

107 


108    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

her  chewing  when  she  is  standing  still  or  lying  down  ?  She 
really  chews  her  food  over  again.  How  does  a  cow  drink  ? 
They  like  plenty  of  clean,  fresh  water.  Notice  the  thick 
coat  of  hair.  Do  you  think  this  would  be  as  warm  as  your 
own  coats  and  jackets? 

Circumstances  will  determine  procedure  in  the  study  of 
milk  as  the  thing  which  the  cow  gives  us.  In  cities  where 
milk  is  delivered  in  bottles  the  study  is  necessarily  more 
limited  than  in  the  country.  The  different  prices  of  milk 
and  cream  may  be  considered;  the  times  of  delivery;  the 
habits  of  the  milkman ;  how  soon  must  he  begin  his  work  in 
the  morning  and  where  does  he  load  his  wagon?  See 
how  the  milk  is  kept  in  the  wagon.  If  possible  observe 
milk  trains  and  the  cans  in  which  milk  is  shipped  in  from 
the  country.  Note  the  difference  in  the  appearance  of 
milk  after  standing  in  bottles  overnight.  In  smaller  towns 
where  many  people  keep  cows  some  of  the  children  will 
have  experience  in  carrying  milk  to  the  neighbors.  Who 
does  the  milking  ?  What  is  done  with  the  milk  after  it  is 
brought  into  the  house?  Is  it  strained  and  put  away  or 
measured  and  sent  out  to  customers  ?  What  care  is  taken 
to  keep  the  milk  clean? 

What  are  the  uses  of  milk  ?  Let  the  children  name  all 
they  know.  How  is  butter  made?  Have  the  children 
make  butter  by  stirring  some  sour  cream  rapidly.  This 
may  be  done  by  placing  the  cream  in  a  quart  jar  and  stir- 
ring with  a  cake  spoon,  or  it  may  be  accomplished  by 
shaking  the  jar  vigorously,  in  which  case  the  jar  should  not 
be  more  than  two  thirds  full.  Cheese  may  also  be  made 
in  the  schoolroom.  Heat  sweet  milk  to  about  84°  F.  Put 
a  little  rennet  in  the  milk  to  curdle  it.  (Rennet  may  be 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS         109 


obtained  at  any  drug  store.)  Drain  off  the  whey.  Cut 
the  curd  into  small  pieces  and  stir  gently  for  a  short  time, 
draining  off  the  whey  occasionally.  Now  heat  the  curd 
slowly  to  about  92°  F.  It  should  be  heated  till  it  will  string 
a  little.  Turn  over  and  over  to  get  the  moisture  out.  Salt 
and  mix  or  grind  thoroughly.  It  is  now  ready  to  press, 
after  which  it  may  be  eaten  immediately  or  allowed  to  stand 
in  a  cool,  well-ventilated  room  to  ripen.  Dutch  cheese  or 
cottage  cheese  may  also  be  made. 

Spend  some  time  in  talking  about  what  we  may  do  for 
cows.  We  should  see  always  that  they  have  plenty  of  food 
and  pure  water,  a  warm  shelter  from  storms,  and  clean 
stalls  in  which  to  lie.  And  we  must  always  take  great 
pains  to  see  that  the  milk  is  kept  perfectly  clean. 

SOFT   MAPLE.— Second  Grade 

Since  a  special  study  of  the  Norway  maple  is  made 
in  the  first  grade,  this  tree  is  revisited  for  the  purpose  of 
recalling  the  facts  previously  observed.  Then,  as  in  the 
first  grade,  the  work  begins  with  the  study  of  an  individual 
tre/e  rather  than  with  soft  maples  in  general.  Compare 
the  general  shape  with  that  of  the  Norway.  Is  it  as  round  ? 
Has  it  as  many  branches  ?  Does  it  make  as  good  a  shade  ? 
Is  the  bark  smooth  or. rough?  You  can  always  tell  the 
soft  maple  by  its  scaly,  light-colored  bark.  Examine  trie 
leaves.  Are  they  the  same  color  on  -both  sides?  Can 
you  see  why  this  is  sometimes  called  the  white  or  silver- 
leafed  maple?  How  many  points  do  the  leaves  have? 
Compare  with  the  leaf  of  the  Norway. 

As  an  indoor  exercise,  have  the  children  sketch  a  leaf. 


HO         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Examine  the  twigs.  Is  there  any  way  of  telling  how  much 
they  have  grown  in  the  last  year?  How  are  the  leaves 
arranged  on  the  twigs?  Are  they  closer  together  at  the 
lower  end  or  at  the  tip  ?  Where  are  the  buds  ?  Do  you 
find  anything  else  on  the  twig  ?  When  you  feel  confident 
that  the  children  know  the  individual  tree  which  has  been 
observed,  take  them  around  to  see  if  they  can  find  other 
soft  maples.  Ask  them  to  look  in  yards  and  along  the 
streets  for  them.  Be  sure  to  call  for  reports  upon  such 
observations  the  next  day. 

Watch  carefully  for  the  beginning  of  change  in  leaf 
color.  The  children  will  be  able  to  find  many  beautifully 
colored  leaves  on  the  ground.  Let  them  collect  and  press 
a  number  of  these.  (They  may  be  preserved  for  decora- 
tive purposes  by  scattering  a  little  powdered  rosin  over  the 
surface  and  ironing  with  an  ordinary  hot  flatiron.  This 
makes  the  leaves  shine  and  preserves  their  color.  The 
children  are  usually  much  interested.  An  attractive 
border  above  a  blackboard  may  be.  made  with  these  leaves.) 

When  does  your  soft  maple  finally  become  bare  ?  Are 
there  any  leaves  left  on  the  Norway  at  this  time?  Note 
the  effect  of  a  heavy  rain  or  wind  on  the  falling  of  the 
leaves.  Spend  a  little  time  on  observing  the  tree  after  the 
leaves  are  all  off,  giving  special  attention  to  the  clusters  of 
buds  near  the  ends  of  the  twigs  and  the  single  buds  on  the 
sides.  Make  a  sketch  of  a  twig  with  a  memorandum  of 
the  date.  Early  in  the  spring  or  latter  part  of  the  winter 
tap  some  of  the  soft  maples.  Bore  a  hole  through  the  bark 
and  a  short  distance  into  the  wood.  Place  a  spile  to  drain 
the  sap  into  a  receptacle.  The  spile  may  be  whittled  out 
of  soft  wood,  being  simply  hollowed  out  a  little  to  form  a 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS         III 

trough.  When  does  the  sap  run  more  vigorously?  On 
cloudy  days  or  during  sunshine  ?  Boil  the  sap  down  until 
you  have  a  little  syrup  or  sugar.  While  the  soft  maple 
will  not  yield  as  much  sugar  as  the  sugar  maple,  it  yields 
enough  to  make  the  process  worth  while  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  children. 

Watch  the  bud  clusters  in  the  early  spring.  What  is 
happening  to  them?  Place  a  few  twigs  in  a  bottle  of 
water  in  a  schoolroom  window  until  the  buds  open  and 
the  dainty  little  flowers  are  revealed.  Watch  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  flowers  out  of  doors  also.  Have  the  smaller 
buds  developed  into  flowers  ?  These  must  be  watched  a 
little  longer  to  see  what  comes  of  them.  Watch  their  un- 
folding and  the  growth  of  the  leaves.  This  can  be  well 
studied  in  the  schoolroom  if  the  twigs  are  kept  in  fresh 
water  and  in  the  light.  Outdoor  observations  upon  the 
same  point  should  also  be  made.  The  best  results  wrill  be 
gained  by  taking  a  few  moments  each  day  for  a  number  of 
days  to  note  the  changes  that  are  taking  place.  When 
these  observations  are  finished  the  children  will  know  that 
a  bud  develops  into  a  twig  with  many  leaves.  Leave  with 
them  the  question  as  to  whether  leaves  continue  to  open 
up  at  the  end  of  the  twig.  Toward  the  end  of  the  term 
examine  the  twigs  again  with  this  in  mind.  Encourage 
them  to  watch  some  particular  tree  during  the  summer  to 
see  how  long  new  leaves  continue  to  appear  or  what  other 
changes  may  be  noted. 

After  the  flowers  have  disappeared  watch  the  rapid  de- 
velopment of  the  fruit.  Have  three  sketches  made,  each 
at  a  different  time,  showing  the  growth  of  the  seeds  and  the 
wings*  Do  you  find  that  the  paired  seeds  are  always  about 


112          NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

the  same  in  size?  When  do  the  seeds  begin  to  fall? 
Watch  them  flying  down  from  the  trees,  whirling  around, 
fluttering  like  butterflies.  In  what  way  are  the  wings  of 
any  help  to  the  seeds  ?  How  far  away  from  the  tree  do  the 
winged  seeds  travel? 

Gather  a  number  of  the  seeds  and  plant  them  in  the 
school  garden  or  in  flower  pots  or  boxes  in  your  window 
garden.  Suggest  to  the  children  that  they  also  plant  some 
at  home.  How  long  after  the  planting  is  it  that  the  young 
plants  begin  to  appear?  How  many  leaves  has  the  little 
tree  at  first?  Do  these  look  at  all  like  maple  leaves? 
Watch  for  the  appearance  of  the  next  leaves.  Where  do 
they  appear  ?  What  becomes  of  the  two  long,  slender  leaves 
which  appeared  first?  Can  you  find  any  young  maple 
trees  that  have  planted  themselves  ?  Where  are  they  ? 

Some  time  should  be  given  to  a  discussion  of  the  value 
of  the  maple.  Find  what  uses  the  children  can  name, 
such  as  shade,  nesting  and  feeding  places  for  birds,  fuel, 
and  furniture.  Are  there  any  objections  to  the  soft  maple 
as  a  shade  and  ornamental  tree  about  the  house  ? 


THE   FLICKER.— Third  Grade 

The  flicker  is  one  of  our  most  common  birds.  Because 
of  its  large  size,  striking  characteristics,  and  habit  of  nesting 
near  our  dwelling^  it  is  an  excellent  bird  to  study  in  detail 
in  the  lower  grades.  The  first  lesson  should  be  an  out- 
door observation  for  the  purpose  of  identifying  it.  Have 
the  children  note  the  size  (a  little  larger  than  a  robin),  the 
color  of  the  back  (grayish-brown  barred  with  black),  the 
red  spot  on  the  back  of  the  head,  and  the  black  crescent 


TYPICAL  LESSON   PLANS  113 

on  the  breast.  Note  where  the  bird  is  and  what  it  is  doing. 
When  you  are  sure  that  the  children  know  the  bird  tell 
them  you  want  them  to  watch  the  flickers  about  their 
homes  to  see  how  many  things  they  can  find  out  about  these 
birds.  Have  them  note  especially  all  the  different  places 
where  the  birds  are  seen,  and  what  they  are  doing.  How 
does  the  bird's  flight  differ  from  that  of  a  robin?  What 
marks  aid  in  identifying  it  when  flying  ?  (The  white  spot 
in  front  of  the  tail  and  the  golden  yellow  lining  of  the 
wings.)  At  the  end  of  a  week,  during  which  the  interest 
has  been  kept  up  by  occasional  reference  to  the  bird,  have 
an  indoor  lesson.  This  should  be  a  free  expression  of  the 
observations  made  by  the  children;  good  pictures  of  the 
bird  may  aid  in  settling  some  points  in  which  there  is  a 
difference  of  opinion.  Some  points  may  well  be  left  to  be 
settled  by  further  outdoor  observation. 

In  the  discussion  of  what  the  children  have  seen,  new 
problems  will  certainly  arise.  For  example,  how  does  the 
flicker  manage  to  walk  up  a  tree  trunk?  The  children 
will  readily  see  that  the  short,  stiff  tail  feathers  aid  the  bird 
in  climbing,  and  in  resting  on  the  sides  of  trees  and  posts. 
By  means  of  pictures  the  teacher  may  bring  out  the  special 
adaptations  of  the  toes,  two  pointing  forward  and  two 
backward,  that  enable  the  bird  to  cling  securely  to  vertical 
surfaces. 

The  question  of  the  flicker's  food  will  come  up.  No 
doubt  some  of  the  children  will  report  that  they  have  seen 
the  birds  feeding  while  on  the  ground.  What  were  they 
eating  ?  The  answer  to  this  may  or  may  not  be  found  by 
observation.  Some  child  may  be  fortunate  enough  to  find 
a  flicker  sitting  on  an  ant-hill  eating  ants.  But  whether 


114         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

the  children  are  able  to  make  out  for  themselves  that 
flickers  eat  ants  or  not,  it  is  well  to  have  them  know  that 
during  the  summer  and  fall  months  more  than  two  thirds 
of  the  food  of  the  flickers  consists  of  ants. 

When  does  the  flicker  make  its  nest?  Some  of  the 
children  will  have  a  chance  to  watch  them  digging  holes 
for  their  nests.  What  tools  do  they  use  in  chipping  out 
the  wood  ?  Their  strong  chisellike  bills.  Do  both  birds 
work  in  making  the  nest?  Tell  the  children  that  if  they 
have  very  sharp  eyes  they  can  distinguish  the  male  from 
the  female  by  looking  at  the  sides  of  the  throat.  The  male 
has  a  black  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  throat.  How  far 
from  the  ground  are  the  nests  made  ?  Compare  different 
ones.  Watch  the  birds  caring  for  the  young.  Listen  for 
the  loud  hissing  sound  made  by  the  young  while  they  are 
still  in  the  nest.  Watch  them  come  forth  from  the  nest. 
Can  they  fly  well  ?  Few  young  birds  can  fly  farther  than 
young  flickers.  Do  the  parents  continue  to  feed  the  young 
after  they  have  left  the  nest?  This  will  be  easily  deter- 
mined ,  since  the  young  beg  in  such  a  noisy  manner  for 
just  another  bite  that  the  children  will  be  sure  to  hear 
them. 

Have  the  children  decide  whether  the  flickers  are  of 
any  use  to  us.  The  fact  that  they  eat  so  many  ants  and 
other  injurious  insects  places  them  among  our  most  bene- 
ficial birds.  Leave  unanswered  the  problems  whether 
flickers  use  the  same  nest  year  after  year,  and  whether  they 
stay  with  us  all  winter  or  go  away  in  the  fall  as  robins  and 
bluebirds  do.  A  few  flickers  remain  here  over  winter. 
They  often  excavate  holes  in  trees  or  buildings  and  remain 
under  shelter  during  the  nights  and  very  cold  days.  On 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  115 

warm  days  they  sally  forth  to  feed  upon  tree  borers  and 
whatever  they  can  find. 

While  a  detailed  study  is  made  of  the  flicker  the  other 
woodpeckers  seen  by  the  children  should  come  in  for  a  share 
of  the  discussions.  Even  in  the  third  grade  something 
may  be  done  with  a  simple  comparative  study  of  the  wood- 
peckers. The  children  will  be  able  to  point  out  a  few 
characteristics  that  are  similar  in  all  the  birds.  In  local- 
ities where  the  red-headed  woodpecker  is  abundant  it  will 
be  found  fully  as  good  for  a  detailed  study  as  the  flicker. 
Other  woodpeckers  that  are  likely  to  be  seen  are  the  hairy, 
downy,  and  sap  sucker. 

ANTS.— Third  Grade 

Almost  all  third-grade  children  have  seen  ants.  Ask 
where  they  have  seen  them  and  what  they  were  doing. 
The  discussion  will  raise  the  question  where  do  ants  live, 
and  how  do  they  care  for  their  home  and  young  ?  If  you 
know  of  an  ant's  nest  accessible  to  the  school  building,  by 
all  means  let  the  first  lesson  include  a  visit  to  this  home. 
Nests  of  small  black  and  brown  ants  are  often  found  under 
sticks,  boards,  and  stones.  Some  are  found  in  the  ground, 
while  others  make  mounds  or  hills  which  are  often  several 
inches  above  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  several  feet  in 
diameter.  If  a  mound  is  found  have  the  children  note 
whether  there  are  any  openings  leading  down  into  the 
ground.  How  many  ?  Watch  to  see  whether  the  ants  go 
in  and  out  of  these  openings.  Are  any  ants  carrying  things  ? 
With  a  trowel  dig  up  a  small  portion  of  the  mound.  How 
do  the  ants  behave  when  disturbed?  Is  there  anything 


Il6    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

in  the  nest  besides  ants  ?  You  will  probably  find  a  number 
of  white  bodies  like  tiny  grains  of  rice.  These  are  young 
ants  in  the  condition  in  which  they  are  called  pupae. 
They  are  asleep  and  perfectly  helpless.  They  look  like 
little  bags  tied  with  a  string  at  one  end.  Some  day  the 
bags  will  split  open  and  a  grown-up  ant  will  come  forth. 
What  do  the  ants  do  with  the  white  pupae  when  you  stir 
up  a  nest?  These  ants  that  you  see  racing  around  and 
carrying  the  pupae  are  known  as  workers. 

You  may  easily  make  an  artificial  ants'  nest  and  keep 
a  few  ants  for  observation  in  your  schoolroom.  There 
are  many  ways  of  making  these  nests.  The  field  nest  is 
easily  made  and  is  very  satisfactory.  Procure  a  piece  of 
window  glass  twelve  inches  long  and  six  inches  wide. 
Build  a  wall  around  it  about  a  fourth  of  an  inch  high  and 
half  an  inch  wide  by  sticking  together  strips  of  glass. 
Divide  the  space  into  three  apartments  by  means  of  par- 
titions made  in  the  same  way  as  the  wall.  Leave  a  pas- 
sage between  the  rooms.  Have  a  separate  cover  for  each 
apartment.  The  covers  should  be  dark  glass  or  boards. 
Another  simple  ant's  nest  that  answers  the  purpose  is  an 
ordinary  school  slate.  Cut  a  couple  of  passages  in  the 
frame,  get  a  pane  of  glass  and  a  board  or  shingle  the  size 
of  the  slate.  Set  the  slate  on  two  blocks  of  wood  in  a 
shallow  pan  of  water.  (An  ordinary  baking  pan  will  do.) 
To  get  your  ants  for  the  nest,  find  an  ant's  home  and  scoop 
up  with  a  trowel  a  number  of  workers  and  put  them 
quickly  into  a  glass  jar.  Collect  some  of  the  pupae.  You 
may  also  find  some  wriggling  wormlike  creatures;  the 
very  young  ants  or  larvae.  Get  as  little  soil  as  possible. 
When  you  return  to  the  schoolroom  dump  the  contents  of 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  117 

the  jar  into  your  nest,  cover  it  up  with  glass  and  board. 
If  you  succeed  in  getting  a  queen  you  may  have  a  perma- 
nent colony.  You  can  tell  the  queen  from  the  workers  by 
her  large  size.  Without  a  queen,  however,  you  can  keep 
the  ants  for  several  weeks ;  long  enough  for  the  children  to 
find  out  many  interesting  things  about  them.  If  you  start 
your  nest  in  the  afternoon,  by  morning  the  ants  will  prob- 
ably be  well  established  in  their  new  home.  You  may 
watch  them  at  any  time  by  removing  the  board  and  look- 
ing through  the  glass.  The  air  must  be  kept  moist  in 
the  home  or  the  ants  will  die.  This  may  be  managed  by 
keeping  a  piece  of  moist  blotting  paper  or  sponge  in  the 
home.  Have  the  children  feed  the  ants  different  things; 
cake  crumbs,  bread,  bits  of  fruit,  sugar,  meat,  etc.  Place 
the  food  near  one  of  the  passages  and  the  ants  will  carry 
it  into  the  home.  Do  the  ants  show  any  preference  for 
special  kinds  of  food  ?  Watch  how  they  care  for  the  pu- 
pae. You  will  probably  find  that  they  move  these  from  one 
place  to  another.  What  effect  does  the  light  have  on  the 
workers  ? 

Besides  the  observation  in  the  schoolroom,  encourage 
the  children  to  watch  ants  they  may  find  outside.  Give 
them  some  simple  problems  to  solve.  How  many  different 
kinds  of  ants  can  you  find  ?  How  many  feet  has  an  ant  ? 
How  does  it  carry  things  ?  Do  you  ever  find  two  or  three 
carrying  the  same  object?  What  does  an  ant  do  when  it 
comes  to  something  that  blocks  its  way,  as  a  stick  or  stone; 
does  it  crawl  over  or  go  around  ?  When  ants  get  into  your 
pantry  or  cupboard  do  they  have  a  definite  path  that  they 
follow  as  they  come  and  go?  Watch  two  ants  that  meet; 
what  do  they  do  ?  You  will  often  find  that  they  touch  each 


THE 


Il8    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

other  with  their  feelers  as  if  this  were  their  way  of  greeting 
each  other.  In  the  fall  you  may  find  a  great  many  ants 
with  wings.  These  are  the  queens  and  drones.  The 
workers  never  have  any  wings. 


TOMATO.— Third  Grade 

Fall. — Purpose:  To  interest  children  in  preparing 
seeds  for  next  spring's  planting. 

Have  the  children  visit  the  school  or  home  garden  and 
select  some  of  the  smoothest,  finest  tomatoes  they  can  find; 
just  the  kind  they  would  like  to  have  on  their  own  plants 
next  summer.  Cut  these  tomatoes  in  two  crosswise,  and 
notice  where  the  seeds  are  borne,  and  how  they  are  ar- 
ranged. Some  of  the  fruit  have  many  more  seeds  than 
others.  Have  the  children  decide  which  kind  they  prefer. 
The  more  seeds,  the  less  room  for  the  thick,  juicy  meat. 
Remove  the  seeds  and  spread  them  out  on  a  sheet  of  paper. 
When  dry  place  them  in  an  envelope,  label,  and  put  away 
for  the  winter. 

Spring. — The  spring  work  with  the  tomato  should  begin 
the  latter  part  of  March,  or  early  in  April.  Have  the 
children  bring  into  the  schoolroom  some  good  garden  soil. 
Put  this  into  a  shallow  box  and  sow  the  seeds,  covering 
them  lightly  with  not  more  than  half  an  inch  of  soil.  Have 
the  children  decide  where  the  box  must  be  kept  and  what 
care  must  be  given  to  it.  Let  them  decide  that  moisture 
and  warmth  are  essential,  and  light  after  the  plants  are  up. 
Watch  for  the  first  appearance  of  the  plants.  How  long 
did  it  take  the  seeds  to  sprout  ?  Compare  with  sweet  pea 
in  this  respect.  How  many  leaves  has  the  little  plant? 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  119 

• 

Watch  to  see  where  the  second  pair  of  leaves  appear.  Are 
these  leaves  the  same  shape  as  the  first  ones? 

When  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high  they  may 
be  transplanted  into  small  flower  pots,  old  berry  boxes,  or 
tin  cans.  If  the  last  are  used,  be  sure  that  a  hole  is  made 
in  the  bottom  of  each  can  for  drainage.  However,  if 
the  plants  are  not  allowed  to  crowd  one  another  too  much, 
they  may  be  left  in  the  large  box  until  time  to  set  them  out 
in  the  garden. 

The  plants  should  be  set  out  the  first  or  second  week  in 
May.  Have  an  indoor  lesson  to  decide  how  and  where  this 
is  to  be  done.  This  decided,  the  children  should  do  the 
work  of  setting  the  plants,  watering,  and  cultivating  them. 
The  plants  should  be  set  in  rows  four  or  five  feet  apart. 
Encourage  the  children  to  set  out  some  of  the  plants  in 
their  own  home  garden.  Watch  the  growth  of  the  plant 
and  note  when  the  first  blossoms  appear.  What  is  the 
color  of  the  tomato  flowers  ?  When  does  the  fruit  begin  to 
ripen?  Can  the  plants  stand  up  straight  when  they  are 
loaded  with  fruit?  It  will  be  a  good  plan  to  use  a  support 
to  help  keep  the  fruit  up  in  the  light  and  air  so  it  will 
ripen  more  evenly.  How  many  tomatoes  will  one  plant 
produce  ? 

What  is  the  fruit  good  for  ?  Think  of  all  the  different 
dishes  made  from  tomatoes;  stews,  soups,  cream  tomatoes, 
salads,  scallops,  etc.  How  are  they  put  away  for  winter 
use?  Our  mothers  can  them,  or  they  are  canned  in  the 
factories  and  we  may  buy  them  from  the  grocer. 

Suggestion. — The  entire  fruit  of  the  tomato  as  well  as 
the  cross  section  are  good  objects  for  water-color  work. 


120          NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

SWEET   PEA.— Third  Grade 

Fall. — Problems:  How  does  the  plant  hold  itself  up 
and  how  does  it  scatter  its  seeds? 

How  tall  are  the  sweet-pea  plants  ?  Are  the  stems  large 
around  or  not?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  stem?  Car 
one  of  these  stems  stand  upright  without  a  support  ?  Ho\^ 
does  it  hold  on  to  the  support?  How  have  the  tendril* 
succeeded  in  taking  hold  of  the  support  ?  Where  are  the 
tendrils  ?  How  many  can  you  find  on  one  plant  ?  WThere 
are  the  pods;  near  the  lower  part  of  the  plant  or  near  the 
top  ?  How  long  is  a  pod  ?  Find  some  pods  that  are  green 
and  some  that  are  ripe.  Note  how  they  differ  from  one 
another.  How  many  seeds  in  one  pod  ?  Find  a  pod  thai 
has  no  seeds  left  in  it.  Notice  that  the  two  parts  are 
twisted.  Watch  other  pods  to  see  if  you  can  find  out  wh} 
they  curl  up  like  this.  When  the  seeds  are  ripe  the  pod 
begins  to  dry.  At  night  the  dew  moistens  it,  and  in  the 
morning  the  warm  sun  dries  it  out  again  and  it  becomes 
warped.  All  at  once  some  day  it  splits  open,  and  the  twc 
parts  curl  up  and  fling  the  seeds  in  every  direction.  If  you 
should  leave  the  seeds  lying  on  the  ground  over  winter 
some  of  them  might  grow.  But  if  you  want  to  be  sure  of  a 
crop  of  sweet  peas  next  summer  you  must  gather  the  seeds 
and  put  them  away. 

Spring. — Problem:  What  must  we  do  in  order  to  ham 
many  beautiful  sweet  pea  blossoms  this  summer? 

Indoor  work.  Decide  where,  when,  and  how  to  plan* 
sweet  peas.  These  plants  do  well  anywhere  in  rich 
mellow  soil,  and  in  plenty  of  sunshine.  They  may  bt 
planted  along  a  fence,  or  close  to  a  building,  or  out  in  the 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  121 

open  garden.  We  must  make  a  drill  at  least  six  inches 
deep,  just  as  early  as  the  soil  is  fit  to  work;  the  earlier  the 
better.  Sow  the  seeds  in  the  trench  and  cover  with  about 
two  inches  of  soil.  When  the  plants  have  grown  about  two 
or  three  inches  in  height  fill  the  trench  almost  to  the  top 
with  soil  leaving  a  slight  depression  to  catch  water.  After 
the  soil  is  thoroughly  soaked,  fill  to  the  top  with  loose  soil, 
or  place  a  layer  of  straw  on  the  top  to  hold  the  moisture. 
When  the  plants  have  grown  about  four  inches  high  have 
the  children  decide  what  supports  they  will  use  for  the 
plants  to  climb.  Strings  fastened  to  a  few  strands  of  wire, 
wire  netting,  or  simply  sticks  from  a  brush  pile  will  answer 
the  purpose. 

Watch  the  growth  of  the  plants;  are  they  slow  or  rapid 
growers  ?  Watch  for  the  first  tendrils.  How  do  they  take 
hold  of  the  support  ?  Do  they  all  curl  in  the  same  direc- 
tion? When  do  the  first  flowers  appear?  We  must 
learn  how  to  remove  the  flowers  without  injuring  the 
plants.  We  must  cut  them  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  not 
pull  them  off.  Cut  the  stems  as  long  as  possible.  It 
is  very  essential  that  you  keep  the  flowers  cut  if  you 
wish  to  have  an  abundance  of  flowers  all  summer. 
This  flower  is  a  good  one  to  study.  The  children 
may  be  interested  to  know  that  it  is  called  the  butter- 
fly flower.  The  two  large  petals  at  the  sides  are  called 
wings,  the  one  at  the  top  the  banner  or  standard,  and  the 
two  that  are  grown  together  forming  a  little  boat  are 
called  the  keel. 

Recall  the  pods  in  which  the  children  found  the  peas 
last  fall.  See  if  they  can  find  the  part  of  the  flower  that 
will  make  the  pod.  Have  the  children  watch  the  sweet 


122    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

peas  to  see  if  any  insects  visit  them.  What  are  the  bees 
and  flies  doing? 

Do  not  try  to  force  the  study  of  pollination  here.  It 
is  enough  for  these  children  to  see  that  the  insects  are 
getting  something  to  eat  out  of  the  flowers. 

Experiments. — No  seeds  are  better  than  sweet  peas  for 
making  some  simple  experiments  in  germination.  If  the 
peas  grow  and  work  we  shall  try  to  find  out  under  what 
conditions  they  can  do  their  work  best. 

Plant  a  few  in  dry  soil;  others  in  moist  soil. 

Moisten  some  blotting  paper,  put  it  in  a  tin  cup,  then 
place  on  it  three  or  four  seeds  that  have  been  soaked  in 
water  for  twenty-four  hours.  Cover  the  cup  so  that  no 
light  can  reach  the  peas  and  keep  warm  and  moist. 

Place  the  same  number  in  a  glass  with  other  conditions 
exactly  the  same.  From  these  the  children  will  see  that 
the  seeds  germinate  just  as  well  in  the  dark  as  in  the  light, 
but  that  they  will  not  grow  without  moisture.  In  the  same 
way  show  that  moisture  and  warmth  are  necessary  for 
germination. 

Have  the  children  select  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
flowers  and  allow  these  to  mature  their  seeds.  Keep  these 
as  choice  seeds  for  next  year's  planting. 

Suggestion. — Sweet  peas  may  be  successfully  grown  in 
window  boxes  in  the  schoolroom. 

ENGLISH    SPARROW.— Third  Grade 

No  time  is  better  for  the  study  of  the  English  sparrow 
than  the  winter. 

Problem. — How  does  the  sparrow  care  for  itself  during 
the  winter  months? 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  123 

Tell  the  children  that  you  and  they  are  going  to  talk 
about  a  bird  that  lives  around  our  homes.  What  is  it? 
The  English  sparrow.  Do  not  let  the  children  say  just 
"  sparrow,"  for  they  should  know  that  we  have  many 
native  sparrows,  and  that  the  English  sparrow  is  only  one 
of  a  large  group.  Make  a  field  trip  with  the  children  to 
observe  a  flock  of  sparrows.  Have  them  note  especially 
where  the  birds  are  and  what  they  are  doing. 

Tell  the  children  to  watch  the  sparrows  around  their 
homes.  Where  are  they  seen?  What  are  they  doing? 
Are  they  found  singly  or  in  flocks?  How  many  can  you 
count  in  one  flock?  What  do  they  eat?  You  wrill  have 
to  be  careful  here  or  the  children  will  say  all  sorts  of  things 
without  having  really  seen  any  of  them.  Tell  them  to 
watch  for  two  days  and  then  call  for  reports  of  actual  ob- 
servations. How  do  they  eat?  Do  they  ever  quarrel 
over  bits  of  food?  Do  they  like  to  drink  water?  How 
do  they  move  about  on  the  ground?  Do  they  walk  or 
hop?  How  do  they  hold  their  tails  when  they  fly? 

How  do  they  keep  warm  in  the  cold  weather  ?  Discuss 
the  coat  of  feathers.  Do  they  exercise?  Do  they  seek 
sheltered  places  ?  Where  do  they  sleep  at  night  ?  Watch 
to  see  if  you  can  find  out.  Do  they  ever  creep  into  sheltered 

f'aces  about  your  home? 
Look  closely  at  the  sparrows  you  see.     Are  they  all  the 
same  color?    The  ones  with  the  black  patches  on  the 
breasts  are  males,  the  others  females.     What  other  differ- 
ences in  color  between  males  and  females  ? 

Do  the  sparrows  sing?  How  many  different  sounds 
do  they  make?  Do  both  males  and  females  make 
sounds  ? 


124         NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Where  do  sparrows  like  to  build  their  nests  ?  What  are 
their  nests  made  of  ? 

One  of  their  nests  may  be  easily  obtained  from  a  corner 
in  a  barn  or  elsewhere,  and  kept  in  the  schoolroom  for 
study.  Why  do  they  have  so  many  feathers  in  their  nests  ? 
The  children  will  be  interested  to  know  that  after  the 
mother  bird  lays  the  eggs  the  father  bird  carries  feathers 
and  covers  up  the  eggs  to  keep  them  warm. 

Why  are  the  birds  called  English  sparrows  ?  Tell  the 
story  of  how  they  were  brought  here  from  England  with 
the  hope  that  they  would  eat  injurious  insects.  Instead  of 
proving  a  blessing  they  have  become  a  real  nuisance  in 
some  places.  Their  real  name  is  "  house  sparrow."  Why 
is  this  a  good  name  for  them  ? 

This  lesson  should  not  be  finished  up  in  a  day  or  two. 
Time  should  be  given  for  the  children  to  make  actual  ob- 
servations which  may  be  reported  occasionally.  A  few 
minutes  may  be  taken  for  this  once  or  twice  a  week  just 
to  keep  up  the  interest.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  weeks 
a  whole  period  may  be  taken  in  summing  up  all  that  has 
been  seen  and  heard. 

TOMATO   WORM.— Fourth  Grade 

Fall. — Problem:  To  find  out  what  the  tomato  worm 
does,  and  what  it  becomes  when  it  is  grown  up. 

The  tomato  worm,  a  larva  of  a  moth  and  an  enemy  of 
the  tomato,  is  frequently  found  on  the  tomato  plants  in 
the  summer  and  fall.  Place  about  four  inches  of  soil  in 
the  bottom  of  a  quart  fruit  jar.  Break  off  a  spray  of  the 
plant  on  which  the  tomato  worm  is  resting  and  place  this 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  125 


upright  in  the  jar.  A  piece  of  wire  screening  may  be  placed 
over  the  mouth. 

How  does  the  worm  manage  to  cling  so  securely  to  the 
stem  ?  The  children  will  be  able  to  make  out  the  sixteen 
clamplike  feet.  What  does  it  eat?  When  does  it  eat 
more,  during  the  day  or  night?  Put  some  fresh  tomato 
leaves  into  the  jar  in  the  evening.  Count  the  number  put 
in  and  determine  how  many  it  eats. 

Some  day  the  children  will  find  the  worm  not  on  the 
stem,  but  crawling  around  on  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
If  they  watch  closely  they  may  see  it  begin  to  push  its 
way  down  into  the  soil.  Why  does  it  bury  itself  alive? 
What  is  it  doing?  Wait  about  two  weeks  and  then  very 
carefully  remove  the  soil  from  the  jar  and  disclose  the 
tomato  worm  no  longer  a  green  worm,  but  a  brown  pupa. 
If  the  children  look  closely  they  will  be  able  to  find  the  dry 
crinkled  skin  that  the  worm  shed  when  it  changed  its  form. 
Is  the  pupa  alive?  Can  it  move  about?  Can  it  eat  any- 
thing ?  The  wriggling  of  the  back  part  of  the  body  shows 
that  it  is  alive,  but  it  does  not  eat  or  move  about.  Put 
the  soil  back  into  the  jar.  Make  a  little  furrow  in  the 
surface.  Place  the  pupa  in  this  and  cover  lightly  with  soil. 
Place  the  jar  in  a  cool  room.  A  basement  not  heated  with 
a  furnace  is  a  good  place.  The  study  should  be  com- 
pleted in  the  spring,  when  the  jar  may  be  brought  back  to 
the  schoolroom.  This  should  be  done  in  the  latter  part  of 
May,  Place  a  small  twig  of  some  sort  in  the  jar.  When 
the  brown  pupa  case  breaks  open  the  moth  will  crawl  up 
the  twig,  and  remain  clinging  to  this  while  its  wings  dry. 
Have  the  children  note  the  number  of  wings  and  feet,  and 
the  large  beautiful  eyes  of  the  moth.  When  the  wings  are 


126         NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

thoroughly  dry,  put  the  moth  into  your  terrarium,  to  let 
the  children  see  how  the  wings  are  used. 

Have  the  children  watch  for  other  moths  of  this  kind. 
They  are  frequently  found  flitting  about  the  flower  beds 
during  the  summer  evenings.  What  are  they  doing? 
If  the  children  watch  closely  they  may  be  able  to  see  the 
long  sucking  tubes  thrust  into  the  flowers  to  sip  the  sweet 
nectar. 

GOOSEBERRY.— Fourth  Grade 

General  Problems. — What  are  the  characteristics  of  the 
gooseberry  shrub,  and  what  methods  of  propagation  and 
culture  are  employed  in  making  it  productive  ? 

The  study  should  begin  early  in  the  spring  before  the 
leaves  begin  to  appear.  Note  general  forms  of  the  plant. 
Is  it  straight  and  tall  or  round  and  bushy  ?  Is  there  a  main 
stem  with  branches  or  many  stems  growing  out  close  to  the 
ground?  Are  all  the  stems  of  the  same  size  and  age?  Is  there 
any  difference  in  color  between  the  old  wood  and  the  new  ? 

Bring  some  twigs  into  the  schoolroom.  Can  you  tell 
what  part  of  the  twig  grew  last  season  ?  How  many  things 
can  you  find  on  a  twig  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  buds  ? 
Are  they  opposite  or  alternate  in  arrangement?  How  do 
buds  on  the  older  portion  of  the  stems  differ  from  those  on 
last  year's  twig?  Where  are  the  largest  buds?  What 
will  all  of  these  buds  become?  Leave  this  as  a  problem 
to  solve  when  the  buds  have  opened.  Where  are  the 
thorns  or  spines  with  reference  to  the  buds  ?  How  many 
spines  in  a  group  ?  Are  they  all  the  same  size  ?  Do  you 
find  any  spines  on  the  older  parts  of  the  twigs  ?  Are  there 
any  not  arranged  in  groups? 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  127 

Watch  for  appearance  of  the  first  leaves.  Compare 
with  other  shrubs  and  trees  as  to  time  of  opening  the  buds. 
Does  frost  hurt  these  leaves  ?  What  is  your  opinion  as  to 
the  hardiness  of  the  plant?  What  is  the  shape  of  the 
leaves?  How  are  they  arranged,  singly  or  in  clusters? 
What  is  the  end  bud  becoming?  The  side  buds?  Are 
there  any  spines  on  the  new,  growing  twigs?  Where  are 
they  with  reference  to  the  leaves  ? 

Watch  for  the  opening  of  the  flowers.  Are  they  more 
numerous  on  the  old  wood  or  on  last  year's  wood  ?  Do  not 
decide  this  too  hastily.  Examine  a  number  before  coming 
to  a  conclusion.  What  is  the  position  of  the  flowers  on 
the  twig  on  the  upper  or  lower  side  ?  Make  out  the  parts 
of  the  flower.  What  part  of  the  flower  becomes  the  berry  ? 
Watch  development  from  week  to  week.  What  part  be- 
comes the  dry,  brown  tuft  that  must  be  taken  off  before 
the  berry  is  ready  to  use?  Do  we  have  to  wait  for  this 
fruit  to  get  ripe  before  we  can  eat  it  ?  This  is  a  good  type 
of  the  true  berry.  Cut  one  in  two  across  the  middle. 
What  parts  can  you  see  ?  Is  the  skin  thick  or  thin  ?  What 
is  the  color  of  the  meat  or  pulp?  Where  are  the  seeds? 
Is  the  plan  of  this  berry  anything  like  that  of  a  tomato? 
From  this  the  children  will  conclude  that  the  tomato  is  also 
a  berry.  How  about  the  currant  ?  When  does  the  goose- 
berry ripen  ?  Have  children  note  time  of  ripening  during 
the  vacation  and  report  in  the  fall.  They  will  find  that  all 
the  berries  do  not  ripen  at  once,  but  that  they  continue  to 
ripen  a  few  at  a  time  for  several  weeks.  What  changes 
occur  in  color  as  the  berries  mature? 

How  may  we  produce  new  gooseberry  plants?  It  will 
be  interesting  to  have  the  children  save  some  of  the  seeds 


128    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

from  the  ripe  fruit.  The  seeds  should  be  taken  from  the 
berries,  washed,  and  thoroughly  dried.  While  some  of  the 
seeds  will  grow,  this  method  of  producing  new  plants  is  a 
slow  one  and  sometimes  the  seeds  do  not  come  true;  that 
is,  they  do  not  produce  a  new  plant  that  has  as  good  fruit 
as  the  old  one.  In  the  fall  plant  the  seeds  in  pots.  Keep 
some  in  the  schoolroom,  the  others  out  of  doors.  Watch 
for  the  appearance  of  the  plants. 

Another  method  used  in  propagating  gooseberries  is  by 
layering.  This  should  be  done  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  or  early  fall.  It  may  be  done  the  first  of  the  fall 
term.  A  vigorous  branch  is  bent  down  and  laid  upon  the 
ground,  or  in  a  shallow  furrow.  This  is  covered  with  moist 
earth,  well  firmed  about  it.  On  top  a  mound  of  soil  is 
sometimes  placed,  or  mulching  of  some  sort  to  keep  the 
ground  moist.  The  layer  may  be  held  down  by  a  weight 
or  by  means  of  a  forked  stick.  In  the  spring  the  stem 
of  the  layer  may  be  severed  from  the  parent  plant  and  the 
new  shoot  with  its  roots  set  out.  The  plants  should  be  set 
from  three  to  four  feet  apart  in  rich,  rather  moist  soil. 
They  will  be  ready  to  bear  in  a  few  years.  To  keep  the 
plants  bearing  well  the  oldest  stems  should  be  cut  out  oc- 
casionally and  the  soil  dug  up  around  the  plants  once  every 
two  or  three  years. 

The  currant  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
gooseberry,  noting  the  features  in  which  the  two  plants 
resemble  each  other,  and  in  which  they  differ. 

What  enemies  have  the  currant  and  gooseberry  ?  The 
children  may  find  some  of  the  gooseberries  covered  with  a 
layer  of  rough,  yellowish  material.  This  is  a  fungous 
growth  that  in  some  places  is  quite  destructive.  All 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  129 

affected  berries  should  be  burned  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
the  disease.  By  spraying,  this  disease  may  be  almost 
wholly  prevented.  Another  enemy  of  the  plants  is  the 
gooseberry  or  currant  worm. 


CURRANT  OR  GOOSEBERRY  WORM.— Fourth  Grade 

General  Problem. — What  are  the  characteristics  that 
help  to  make  the  gooseberry  worm  a  pest  ? 

After  the  leaves  are  well  open,  have  the  children  look 
at  their  gooseberry  or  currant  bushes  for  flies  that  keep 
hovering  around  the  plants.  Catch  a  few  of  these,  put 
them  into  a  tumbler,  and  examine  carefully.  Are  they 
real  flies?  At  first  sight  they  look  as  if  they  might  be 
common  house  flies.  How  many  wings  has  each  one? 
How  many  wings  has  a  house  fly  ?  True  flies  never  have 
but  one  pair  of  wings.  These  insects  are  sawflies.  They 
are  relatives  of  bees  and  wasps. 

What  are  they  doing  as  they  fly  in  and  out  among  the 
bushes  ?  Look  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  till  you  find 
one  that  has  rows  of  white  eggs  on  it.  These  are  the  eggs 
of  the  sawfly.  How  many  on  one  leaf  ?  On  some  of  the 
leaves  you  will  find  tiny  worms  that  have  hatched  from  the 
eggs.  What  are  the  worms  doing  ?  What  kind  of  mouths 
must  they  have  to  nibble  the  leaves  in  this  fashion  ?  They 
have  strong  toothed  jaws.  Place  a  few  of  the  worms  on 
some  twigs.  Keep  the  twigs  fresh  in  a  bottle  of  water. 
Fresh  leaves  should  be  put  in  every  evening.  Watch  them 
feed  and  grow.  These  worms,  as  a  rule,  do  not  thrive 
well  for  any  length  of  time  in  confinement,  so  new  ones  may 
be  brought  in  from  the  bushes  from  day  to  day  or  the  vari- 


NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

ous  stages  may  be  found  at  one  time,  and  brought  in  for 
study.  Encourage  the  children  to  observe  them  on  the 
bushes  at  home.  How  many  different  colors  do  you  find 
on  one  worm?  Are  they  all  the  same  color?  The  ones 
that  are  pale  green  with  yellow  near  the  end  are  the  oldest 
ones.  Do  the  worms  keep  the  hinder  part  of  the  body 
straight  or  curled?  Look  at  a  number  of  different  ones 
when  they  are  quiet  on  the  leaves  before  deciding  this. 
How  many  feet  has  one  ?  To  count  them  hold  the  leaf  on 
a  level  with  your  eye  and  look  under  the  worm.  The  three 
pointed  pairs  near  the  head  are  called  true  feet.  The  six 
pairs  in  the  middle  and  the  one  at  the  hinder  end  are  called 
prop  feet.  Do  you  remember  how  many  feet  the  woolly 
bear  caterpillar,  or  tomato  worm  had?  They  had  only 
eight  pairs.  One  way  you  can  tell  sawfly  larvae  from 
butterfly  or  moth  larvae  is  by  the  greater  number  of  feet. 
If  you  have  some  of  the  light  green  worms  with  the 
yellow  spots  put  them  in  a  jar  or  box  with  plenty  of  fresh 
leaves.  Keep  a  piece  of  mosquito  netting  tied  over  the 
top.  In  a  few  days  the  worms  disappear.  What  do  you 
find  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  under  the  leaves?  Those 
black  objects  are  cocoons  that  were  woven  by  the  worms. 
After  three  or  four  days  cut  one  of  the  cocoons  open.  What 
is  on  the  inside?  Instead  of  the  worm  this  sleeping 
mummy  is  a  pupa.  Leave  the  rest  of  the  cocoons  undis- 
turbed. After  ten  days  look  in  the  box  every  day.  Be 
sure  to  keep  the  netting  tied  over  the  top.  What  do  you 
find  in  the  box?  These  insects  are  the  grown-up  saw- 
flies.  Look  at  the  cocoons  for  openings  through  which 
they  came  out.  They  are  now  ready  to  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  gooseberry  leaves  to  produce  a  new  crop  of  worms. 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  131 

The  worms  that  were  left  out  of  doors  dropped  down 
to  the  ground  and  made  their  cocoons  under  the  dead 
leaves  or  other  rubbish,  or  just  under  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  The  second  brood  of  sawflies  often  eat  up  every  leaf 
left  on  the  bushes  by  the  first  brood.  When  these  are 
grown  up  as  larvae  they  spin  cocoons  just  as  the  others  did, 
but  instead  of  the  sawflies  coming  out  in  two  or  three  weeks 
they  remain  as  pupae  in  the  cocoons  all  winter  and  come 
out  in  time  to  lay  eggs  on  the  first  leaves  that  appear  in  the 
spring. 

If  these  cocoons  are  close  to  the  surface,  or  under  dead 
leaves,  who  will  suggest  a  way  to  get  rid  of  some  of  them  ? 
Rake  up  the  trash  in  the  fall  and  burn  it.  Spraying  the 
bushes  with  hellebore  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  worms 
begin  to  appear  is  usually  effective.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  spray  several  times. 

The  children  will  be  interested  to  know  that  these 
worms  are  not  natives  of  America.  They  were  accidentally 
imported  from  Europe  into  the  New  England  states  about 
fifty  years  ago.  Since  then  they  have  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  United  States. 

BLUEGRASS.— Fifth  Grade 

Problems. — What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  bluegrass 
that  make  it  a  good  lawn  plant  ?  What  may  we  do  to  keep 
our  lawns  beautiful  ? 

The  work  should  begin  with  outdoor  observation  of 
the  bluegrass  during  the  latter  part  of  winter  or  very  early 
spring.  Note  the  condition  of  the  grass  at  this  time. 
What  indications  have  you  that  it  has  lived  all  winter? 


132         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Upon  looking  closely  the  children  will  find  many  green 
leaves  close  to  the  ground.  Some  of  the  leaves  will  be  half 
green  and  half  dead.  Have  weather  conditions  had  any- 
thing to  do  with  the  number  of  leaves  that  have  remained 
green?  Compare  the  grass  that  is  found  growing  on  a 
southern  slope  with  that  on  a  northern  or  western  exposure. 
If  the  children  find  a  spot  where  no  green  leaves  are  visible, 
leave  with  them  the  problem  whether  or  not  the  entire  plant 
is  dead.  Let  them  watch  the  spot  occasionally  until  they 
are  convinced  that  new  plants  are  springing  up  from  the 
ground.  What  makes  it  possible  for  the  plant  to  do  this  ? 
Dig  up  a  small  sod  of  bluegrass,  wash  all  the  soil  out 
of  the  roots,  keep  it  moist,  and  bring  it  into  the  school- 
room for  study.  Examine  the  portion  of  the  sod  that  grew 
above  ground.  Can  you  make  out  individual  plants? 
How  are  these  related  to  one  another  ?  Are  they  far  apart 
or  close  together?  Look  at  the  part  that  grew  in  the 
ground.  How  many  distinct  structures  do  you  find? 
Distinguish  the  mass  of  small  threadlike  roots  from  the 
underground  stem  or  slender  rootstock.  Have  the  children 
note  the  difference  between  this  underground  stem  and 
the  roots.  The  stem  has  joints,  thin  scale  leaves,  and  often 
a  bud  at  the  end  which  sends  up  a  new  grass  plant.  Have 
the  children  look  for  these  new  shoots.  Note  the  direction 
of  growth  of  the  rootstock.  What  are  the  advantages  of 
this  rootstock  during  a  severe  winter  ?  The  plants  above 
ground  may  be  dead,  but  the  rootstock  will  still  live  and 
have  its  bud  all  ready  to  send  up  a  new  shoot  when  warm 
weather  comes.  It  enables  the  plant  to  spread  over  a 
larger  area.  It  helps  to  tide  over  a  dry  season  as  well 
as  a  cold  one. 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  133 

Propagation. — What  ways  are  there  of  starting  blue- 
grass  on  our  lawns  ?  By  sods  and  by  seeds.  If  good  sod 
can  be  obtained  this  is  the  quickest  way  to  get  a  lawn, 
but  the  most  common  way  is  to  plant  seed.  Have  the 
children  plant  a  few  seeds  in  a  box  in  the  schoolroom,  or 
better  in  the  schoolyard,  and  watch  the  habits  of  growth 
of  the  young  plants.  See  if  the  children  can  find  out  when 
the  sod  begins  to  form.  Plant  seeds  at  varying  depths. 
Leave  some  almost  entirely  uncovered.  Determine  which 
germinate  best.  Sow  a  small  plat  with  pure  bluegrass 
seed,  another  with  bluegrass  and  white  clover  mixed. 
Which  succeeds  better?  Procure  several  pieces  of  sod, 
each  about  three  inches  square.  Place  these  in  soil  about 
six  inches  apart.  Watch  results.  What  has  made  it  pos- 
sible for  these  to  cover  the  ground  ?  Allow  some  blue- 
grass  plants  to  remain  unmown  until  they  have  produced 
flowers  and  seeds.  Few  children  recognize  the  plant  in 
this  stage.  When  do  the  plants  begin  to  send  up  their 
flowering  stems?  Begin  to  watch  for  these  the  last  of 
May  and  first  of  June.  From  what  part  of  the  plant  does 
the  flower  stem  grow?  How  tall  do  these  flower  stems 
grow?  Measure  several  and  compare.  Are  there  any 
leaves  on  the  flower  stem  ?  Is  this  stem  solid  or  hollow  ? 
Notice  that  the  stem  branches  into  many  slender  parts 
which  bear  the  small  scalelike  flowers.  Note  the  color 
of  the  branch. 

Do  not  try  to  make  out  the  parts  of  the  flowers.  The 
children  may  be  interested  to  know  that  grasses  do  not  have 
bright  petals  as  so  many  other  flowers  do,  but  that  they  do 
have  stamens  and  pistils.  The  stamens  may  be  readily 
found  in  the  bluegrass.  When  the  flowers  have  become 


134    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

dry  have  the  children  find  the  seeds.  Rub  the  seeds  out  of 
one  panicle  or  flower  head  to  determine  the  amount.  How 
many  panicles  does  it  take  to  produce  a  teaspoonful  of 
seeds  ? 

Care  of  the  Lawn. — Everyone  likes  to  see  a  smooth, 
velvety  lawn.  Encourage  the  children  to  suggest  things  to 
do  to  keep  their  lawns  beautiful.  Remove  sticks,  dead 
leaves,  paper,  and  weeds.  If  there  are  bare  spots  they 
should  be  raked  and  sown  with  fresh  seeds  early  in  the 
spring.  If  the  lawn  is  uneven  it  should  be  rolled.  Mow- 
ing should  be  done  often  enough  to  keep  the  grass  close  cut. 
Evening  is  a  better  time  to  mow  during  hot  weather  than 
morning.  Why?  In  dry  weather  the  grass  should  not 
be  cut  too  close.  Why?  There  is  danger  of  exposing 
the  roots  to  the  sun. 

Suggestion. — A  small  bunch  of  flowering  and  fruiting 
bluegrass  ought  to  be  put  away  for  schoolroom  observation. 

What  are  some  of  the  enemies  of  the  lawn  ?  The 
children  will  suggest  many.  Dandelion,  plaintain,  mole, 
grubworm,  etc. 

DANDELION.— Fifth  Grade 

Problem. — What  characteristics  has  the  dandelion  that 
make  it  a  successful  lawn  weed  ? 

The  study  should  be  taken  up  about  the  same  time  as 
that  of  the  bluegrass.  Begin  outdoor  observation  early 
enough  so  that  the  children  may  see  that  the  plant  has 
lived  over  winter.  In  sheltered  places  they  will  find  that 
some  of  the  leaves  have  remained  green  during  the  cold 
months. 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  135 

Habits  o)  Growth. — What  is  the  relation  of  the  leaves 
to  the  ground  ?  Where  are  the  longest  leaves;  at  the  outer 
or  inner  part  of  the  rosette?  Where  are  the  youngest 
leaves  ?  Is  the  center  of  the  rosette  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground  or  below  it?  Are  there  any  advantages  to 
the  plant  in  growing  as  it  does  ?  The  children  will  readily 
see  that  the  plants  are  better  protected  from  wind  and  cold 
because  of  this  habit  of  growth.  Dig  up  a  number  of  plants, 
wash  off  the  soil  and  bring  into  the  schoolroom.  Examine 
the  root.  Note  how  long  and  thick  it  is  and  its  direction 
of  growth.  Compare  with  bluegrass  roots.  This  kind  of 
root  is  called  a  fleshy  tap  root.  Has  this  root  any  special 
advantages  ?  Let  the  children  think  about  this.  Do  not 
try  to  answer  it  fully  now.  Come  back  to  it  when  the  beet 
is  studied.  Have  the  children  pull  the  rosettes  apart,  care- 
fully noting  what  is  stored  away  in  the  center  of  each. 
They  will  be  interested  to  find  numbers  of  tiny  flower  buds, 
some  larger  than  a  pea,  some  as  small  as  a  pin  head.  Get 
the  average  number  of  buds  in  the  specimens. 

Flower  and  Fruit. — Note  the  time  of  the  first  dandelion 
flowers,  position  of  flower  on  the  plant,  length  of  flower 
stem.  Note  that  as  the  stem  lengthens  it  does  not  grow 
straight  upward,  but  first  bends  outward.  Have  children 
watch  to  see  that  the  flowers  close  up  at  night  and  during 
rainy,  cloudy  days.  Bring  a  number  of  flowers  into  the 
schoolroom.  Have  the  children  decide  whether  what  we 
call  the  flower  is  a  single  flower  or  a  cluster  of  many 
flowers.  Separate  the  cluster  of  flowers  and  look  at  one 
small  flower.  What  do  you  see  ?  A  small  seedlike  body 
at  the  lower  part,  a  cluster  of  soft  hairs  above  this ;  and  the 

yellow  part,  the  petal,  with  the  two  "pollen-catchers" 
10 


136    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

extending  above  it.  Have  children  estimate  by  counting 
the  number  of  flowers  in  three  or  four  clusters  about  how 
many  flowers  one  plant  will  produce.  If  each  flower  makes 
one  seed,  how  many  seeds  will  one  plant  produce  ?  How 
long  after  the  flowers  begin  to  open  until  the  seeds  are  ripe  ? 
How  does  this  compare  with  other  plants  you  know? 
What  is  the  position  of  the  stem  with  the  ripe  fruit  on  it  ? 
What  advantage  in  its  standing  so  tall  and  straight? 
Examine  the  fruit.  What  part  of  the  flower  has  opened 
up  into  the  parachute?  What  has  become  of  the  seed? 
What  scatters  the  seeds  of  this  plant? 

Experiments. — These  should  begin  with  the  first  lessons 
in  early  spring.  Cut  off  the  leaves  of  a  dandelion  rosette, 
leaving  the  center  uninjured.  Cut  another  a  little  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Cut  a  third  about  three  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Have  the  children  try 
these  experiments  at  home  as  well  as  at  school  and  report 
results.  They  will  find  that  unless  the  plant  is  cut  off  far 
below  the  surface  it  will  continue  to  grow.  Have  them 
decide  whether  or  not  a  lawn  mower  will  kill  dandelions, 
or  whether  ordinary  methods  of  weeding  will  do  it.  Plant 
a  few  seeds  to  determine  whether  or  not  they  grow  the  first 
season.  Study  a  path  or  some  spot  that  has  been  trampled 
upon  to  decide  which  can  stand  trampling  better,  blue- 
grass  or  dandelion. 

WATER   BEETLES.— Sixth  Grade 

Water  beetles  are  found  in  abundance  in  ponds  and 
pools.  They  may  be  obtained  by  scooping  up  with  a  dip 
net,  or  long-handled  dipper,  the  vegetable  matter  from  the 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS         137 

bottom  of  the  pond.  They  may  often  be  caught  while 
swimming  by  means  of  an  ordinary  insect  net.  During 
the  early  spring  months  these  beetles  may  be  found  on  the 
ground  in  the  vicinity  of  electric  lights.  Two  specimens 
are  common,  the  water  scavenger  and  the  cybister,  a  preda- 
ceous  diving  beetle.  These  are  easily  distinguished  from 
each  other.  The  water  scavenger  is  a  large,  shiny  black 
beetle;  while  the  cybister  is  a  little  smaller,  more  flat,  and 
has  a  cream-colored  band  extending  around  the  body. 

General  Problems. — What  special  adaptations  have  these 
beetles  that  make  it  possible  for  them  to  live  in  the  water  ? 
Are  they  harmful  or  beneficial  to  man  ? 

The  Cybister. — If  possible  study  this  beetle  first  in  its 
natural  surroundings  by  making  a  visit  to  a  pond  in  the 
neighborhood.  Capture  some  of  them,  bring  into  the 
schoolroom,  and  place  in  an  aquarium.  Have  the  children 
arrange  the  aquariums  as  nearly  like  the  pond  as  possible. 
Place  in  the  bottom  a  few  small  stones  or  gravel,  some  of 
the  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  a  stick  leaning  against 
the  side  of  the  jar.  If  you  have  no  aquarium  use  a  glass 
jar  or  a  large  glass  dish.  Two  or  three  ten-cent  glass 
fruit  dishes  will  be  found  valuable  aids  in  the  study  of 
many  water  animals.  Have  the  children  observe  the  be- 
havior of  the  beetles.  Where  do  they  stay;  at  the  surface 
of  the  water  or  at  the  bottom?  Shade  one  side  of  the 
aquarium  and  determine  whether  they  prefer  light  or  dark- 
ness. Do  they  move  around  much  if  left  undisturbed? 
Try  to  determine  when  the  beetles  are  more  active;  during 
the  day  or  during  the  night  ?  For  detailed  study  place  the 
beetles  singly  in  tumblers  about  two  thirds  full  of  water. 
Two  or  three  pupils  may  observe  the  same  specimen. 


138    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Problem. — How  does  the  beetle  move?  What  is  the 
position  of  the  body  while  the  beetle  is  swimming  ?  How 
many  legs  has  it  ?  Which  ones  does  it  use  most  in  swim- 
ming? Watch  carefully  to  see  if  the  strokes  are  made 
with  both  hind  legs  at  the  same  time.  Do  these  legs  differ 
from  the  others  in  structure  ?  Look  carefully  and  you  will 
find  that  these  legs  are  broad  and  thin  and  have  a  fringe  of 
long  hairs  on  them.  Watch  these  hairs  while  the  beetle 
is  swimming  to  see  if  they  change  positions.  When  the 
stroke  is  made  the  hairs  are  spread  to  make  the  leg  more 
oarlike.  As  the  leg  is  lifted  after  the  stroke  the  hairs  droop 
downward  close  to  the  leg.  The  children  can  see  this  per- 
fectly. Watch  the  beetle  dive  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass. 
Does  it  go  head  first? 

Problem. — How  does  this  beetle  breathe?  When  the 
beetle  is  resting  in  the  aquarium  what  position  does  it 
take  in  the  water  ?  You  will  find  it  hanging  head  down- 
ward and  with  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  protruded  above  the 
surface.  If  it  is  suddenly  disturbed  it  dives  quickly  to  the 
bottom  while  one  or  two  small  bubbles  of  air  may  be  seen 
coming  from  the  tip  of  the  wing  covers.  This  gives  a  clue 
to  its  method  of  breathing.  When  it  is  resting  with  the  tip 
of  the  body  above  the  surface  it  lifts  its  wing  covers  slightly, 
air  rushes  in,  and  is  held  by  fine  hairs  on  the  back.  Ar- 
ranged in  rows  on  each  side  of  the  back  are  breathing  pores 
through  which  the  air  passes  into  the  body.  The  space 
under  the  wings  holds  air  enough  to  last  the  beetle  for  some 
time  under  the  water. 

Problem. — How  does  the  beetle  eat,  and  what  does  it 
eat?  Place  in  the  aquarium  some  small  bits  of  lean  meat, 
fresh  liver,  or  some  fish  food  used  for  goldfish.  Watch 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  139 

to  see  if  those  disappear.  Place  in  the  aquarium  some 
mosquito  larvae  (" wrigglers"  or  "wiggle  tails")  and 
watch  results.  Let  the  beetle  remain  a  few  days  without 
food,  then  with  a  pointed  stick  or  pair  of  forceps  hold  a 
small  piece  of  liver  in  the  aquar  um  near  the  beetle.  It 
will  soon  detect  it  and  swim  toward  it,  seizing  it  with  its 
strong  jaws.  Note  how  the  front  feet  are  used  in  helping 
to  hold  the  bite  while  the  beetle  tears  it  to  pieces. 

Problem. — How  does  the  beetle  get  from  the  pond  to  the 
electric  lights  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  means  a  study 
of  wings.  This  is  best  done  by  means  of  dry  specimens 
with  wings  spread.  Have  the  children  note  first  on  the 
live  specimen  the  line  down  the  middle  of  the  back  where 
the  outer  wings  meet.  With  the  dry  specimen  in  hand  note 
the  shape  of  the  inner  wings,  and  the  numerous  veins. 
Are  these  wings  longer  or  shorter  than  the  outer  ones? 
Why  is  it  that  the  beetle  can  keep  them  entirely  concealed 
when  in  the  water  ?  One  or  two  specimens  should  be  kept 
with  the  outer  wings  raised  to  show  how  the  inner  wings 
are  folded  and  tucked  away  when  not  in  use. 

The  Life  History. — In  scooping  up  the  debris  from  the 
bottom  of  the  pond  in  the  spring  you  will  probably  capture 
some  of  the  young  cybisters.  They  do  not  resemble  in 
any  way  the  mature  insects.  They  are  long,  slender,  seg- 
mented larvae  with  six  slender  legs  and  hornlike  jaws. 
Place  them  in  an  aquarium  by  themselves  and  feed  them 
insects,  earthworms,  or  bits  of  fresh  meat.  The  children 
will  soon  discover  that  the  sharp,  hornlike  jaws  are  used  to 
seize  and  kill  the  prey  and  suck  the  juices  from  their  bodies. 
These  larvae  are  so  fierce,  and  kill  so  many  mosquito 
larvae  and  other  water  insects  that  they  are  known  as 


140    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

water  tigers.  The  method  of  breathing  may  be  seen  by 
the  children.  At  the  hind  end  of  the  body  are  two  little 
projections  with  openings  or  breathing  pores  in  them. 
Watch  the  larvae  curl  the  end  of  the  body  upward  and 
stick  these  projections  above  the  surface.  When  the  larva 
is  ready  to  change  to  a  pupa  it  crawls  upon  the  bank  and 
makes  a  small  cell  in  the  ground.  It  remains  here  three 
weeks  and  then  changes  to  a  beetle.  Some  time  should  be 
given  to  discussion  of  the  value  of  the  cybister  as  a  mos- 
quito destroyer. 

The  water  scavenger  beetle  may  be  studied  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  cybister.  A  comparative  study  of  the 
two  will  make  a  profitable  lesson.  The  children  will  dis- 
cover that  the  scavenger  uses  its  legs  differently  while 
swimming,  that  it  rests  with  its  head  out  of  the  water,  that 
it  takes  a  film  of  air  on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  and  that 
it  feeds  upon  decaying  vegetable  matter  as  well  as  insects. 
The  eggs  of  these  beetles  may  be  found  floating  upon  the 
water  in  large,  white,  irregular  cocoons.  The  cocoons  are 
easily  identified  by  a  curious  handlelike  stem  on  one  side. 
There  are  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  eggs  in  each  cocoon. 

THE  CABBAGE  BUTTERFLY.— Seventh  Grade 

General  Problem. — Where  do  the  cabbage  worms  come 
from,  and  what  may  be  done  to  lessen  their  numbers? 

Ask  the  children  to  bring  in  cabbage  leaves  that  have 
worms  on  them,  or  pass  to  the  school  garden  and  examine 
the  cabbage  plants  there.  Where  did  the  worms  come 
from  ?  The  children  have  probably  seen  the  white  cabbage 
butterfly  flying  around  the  cabbage  patch  alighting  now 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS         141 

and  then  upon  the  leaves.  What  were  they  doing  ?  Look 
on  the  under  side  of  the  cabbage  leaves  for  the  eggs  that 
the  butterflies  deposit  there.  There  are  small  cream  or 
light  yellow  bodies  standing  on  end  on  the  surface  of  the 
leaves  in  size  not  as  large  as  the  head  of  a  pin.  Are  these 
eggs  grouped  or  single?  Do  you  find  as  many  on  the 
upper  surface  as  on  the  lower  ?  Is  there  any  advantage  in 
having  the  eggs  on  the  lower  surface? 

Place  the  leaves  on  plates  or  in  a  box,  to  see  if  the  eggs 
will  hatch.  It  is  not  necessary  to  wait,  however,  for  these 
tiny  creatures  to  grow  before  continuing  the  study.  Ob- 
serve some  of  the  worms  or  larvae  that  are  already  quite 
large.  Bring  a  number  of  these  into  the  schoolroom  and 
place  in  a  terrarium  or  box.  Keep  supplied  with  fresh 
leaves. 

How  do  they  eat  the  leaves  ?  What  kind  of  mouth  parts 
must  they  have?  The  children  will  readily  see  that  they 
must  have  biting  jaws  in  order  to  make  holes  in  the  leaves 
as  they  do.  Place  the  worms  on  fresh  leaves  and  let  the 
children  notice  how  they  eat. 

How  do  they  move  about?  Make  out  the  number  of 
feet  they  have.  Are  all  the  feet  of  the  same  size  and  shape  ? 
The  three  pairs  near  the  head  are  the  true  legs,  the  four 
near  the  middle  and  the  one  at  the  hind  part  of  the  body 
are  pro-legs. 

Watch  the  larvae  closely  when  they  leave  the  leaves 
and  crawl  up  the  side  of  the  cage.  They  are  now  getting 
ready  to  change  into  pupae.  How  do  they  fasten  them- 
selves to  the  support?  Notice  the  little  bit  of  silk  at  the 
hinder  part  of  the  body  and  the  thread  of  silk  around  the 
middle, 


142    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

The  children  may  not  be  fortunate  enough  to  see  the 
larva  skin  split  and  wrinkle  backward  till  it  drops  off  at 
the  hinder  end,  but  they  will  see  the  pupa  that  is  left  in 
place  of  the  larva.  How  does  it  differ  from  the  larva? 
Does  it  move  about  or  eat  ?  Is  it  alive  ?  Touch  it  gently 
to  see  if  it  moves. 

If  you  start  this  study  in  early  September,  some  of  the 
pupae  will  change  into  butterflies.  This  change  occurs 
during  the  summer  in  about  ten  days.  Late  in  the  fall 
those  that  pupate  remain  in  that  stage  all  winter,  to  produce 
the  first  generation  of  butterflies  in  the  spring. 

Study  the  butterflies.  Have  children  watch  them  out 
of  doors  to  see  what  they  are  doing.  They  will  probably 
find  them  flitting  among  flowers  as  well  as  over  the  cabbage 
patch.  What  are  they  doing  on  the  flowers  ?  Leave  this 
as  a  problem.  Put  a  few  butterflies  into  the  terrarium. 
Place  in  it  also  a  bottle  of  water  containing  some  flowers. 
Clover  will  serve  the  purpose  very  well.  Watch  to  see 
how  the  butterflies  uncoil  their  long  sucking  tubes  to  sip 
the  nectar  from  the  flowers.  They  will  do  the  same  thing 
if  you  place  a  few  drops  of  sweetened  water  in  the  cage. 
Are  all  the  butterflies  the  same  color?  Those  that  have 
two  black  spots  on  the  fore  wing  are  females. 

Find  out  to  what  extent  the  cabbage  worms  are  con- 
sidered a  pest  in  your  district?  Do  they  feed  on  cauli- 
flower and  other  members  of  the  cabbage  family  ?  What 
may  be  done  to  keep  them  in  check?  Insect  powder 
diluted  with  seven  times  its  bulk  of  flour  and  dusted  on  the 
leaves  is  sometimes  effective.  Many  people  sprinkle  the 
leaves  with  hot  water.  Have  the  water  almost  boiling 
when  put  in  the  watering  can.  By  the  time  it  reaches  the 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS         143 

leaves  it  will  be  hot  enough  to  kill  the  worms  but  not  injure 
the  plants. 

What  natural  foes  do  the  cabbage  butterflies  and  their 
larvae  have?  Many  birds  eat  both  worms  and  butterflies. 
See  if  you  can  find  any  birds  feeding  among  the  cabbage. 
A  common  foe  is  a  small  insect  known  as  a  braconid  fly. 

The  children  will  often  find  on  the  cabbage  leaves  a 
mass  of  yellow  bodies  that  look  like  eggs.  Bring  some  of 
these  into  the  schoolroom.  Put  them  into  a  tumbler  and 
tie  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth  or  netting  over  the  top.  In  a 
few  days  the  glass  will  be  swarming  with  tiny  creatures 
not  much  larger  than  gnats.  Where  did  they  come  from  ? 
Examine  the  yellow  mass.  What  do  you  find  ?  A  hole  in 
each  of  the  egglike  bodies.  When  you  look  closely  you 
will  see  that  these  are  not  eggs  but  cocoons  made  out  of 
silk.  The  flies  hatched  from  the  cocoons.  They  are 
parasites  that  help  to  keep  the  cabbage  butterflies  in  check. 
They  lay  the  eggs  just  under  the  skin  of  the  cabbage  worm. 
These  eggs  hatch  into  tiny  white  grubs  which  feed  upon 
the  tissues  of  the  worm.  They  are  careful  not  to  touch 
any  of  the  vital  organs  such  as  the  heart,  digestive  system, 
etc.  Why?  When  they  are  ready  to  spin  cocoons  and 
change  to  pupae,  they  burst  through  the  skin  of  the  worm 
in  a  group,  killing  it  instantly. 

The  braconid  flies  are  relatives  of  the  bees  and  wasps 
and  are  not  true  flies.  There  is  another  parasite,  a  near 
relative  of  the  braconids  known  as  chalcis  fly,  that  feeds 
upon  the  pupae.  So  sometimes  you  may  find  a  swarm  of 
chalcis  flies  emerging  from  the  pupa  skin  instead  of  a 
butterfly. 

The  history  of  the  cabbage  butterfly  in  America  is  in- 


144    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

teresting.  It  was  imported  in  some  way,  no  one  knows 
how,  from  Europe  to  Northeastern  Canada,  in  1860.  In 
about  twenty  years  it  had  spread  over  the  eastern  half  of 
the  continent.  In  five  more  years  it  was  found  as  far  west 
as  Denver.  It  is  now  found  wherever  cabbage  is  grown, 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  coast. 


THE    GRAPE.— Seventh  Grade 

General  Problems. — What  do  we  need  to  know  about 
grapes  and  their  culture  in  order  to  produce  a  good  crop  of 
fruit? 

The  work  should  begin  in  the  fall  with  the  making  of 
cuttings.  If  the  class  has  not  already  made  a  detailed 
study  of  soft-wood  cuttings,  then  as  a  preliminary  lesson 
soft-wood  cuttings  should  be  made  with  a  study  of  the 
callus,  rooting,  and  transplanting. 

Grape  cuttings  are  made  late  in  the  fall  or  early  winter 
when  the  leaves  have  fallen  off,  and  the  plant  has  ceased 
work  for  the  winter.  Cuttings  made  from  hard  wood  at 
this  season  are  called  dormant  cuttings.  Will  you  want 
old  wood  or  new  for  the  cuttings  ?  They  should  be  made 
from  this  season's  growth.  Measure  some  of  the  stems  to 
determine  the  length  of  growth  in  one  season.  Do  these 
stems  vary  in  thickness? 

How  many  buds  on  one  stem?  How  arranged? 
Remove  from  the  vine  a  number  of  branches.  Make  a 
slanting  cut  through  the  joint  or  node  where  a  bud  is  at- 
tached. To  do  this  place  the  knife  on  the  side  of  the  stem 
opposite  the  bud  and  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  it.  Now 
cut  slanting  downward  and  the  knife  will  come  out  just 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS         145 

below  the  bud.  Make  one  clean  cut;  it  must  not  be 
jagged.  Each  cutting  should  have  at  least  two  good  buds. 

What  will  you  do  with  your  cuttings  ?  Tie  a  number 
together  and  place  them  in  moist  sand  in  a  cool  place,  or 
they  may  be  buried  in  the  soil  of  the  garden.  If  this  is 
done  care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  them  where  they  will 
stand  in  water.  What  do  you  want  the  cuttings  to  do 
during  the  winter  ?  Just  what  your  soft-wood  cuttings  did, 
form  a  callus  and  start  roots. 

Take  up  the  work  again  in  the  spring.  The  cuttings 
should  be  set  out  in  a  row  in  the  garden  in  a  well-drained 
spot.  Set  them  about  eight  inches  apart  and  deep  enough 
so  that  only  one  bud  will  be  left  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  They  should  not  be  less  than  six  inches  in  the 
ground.  These  cuttings  will  be  ready  to  set  out  in  a 
permanent  place  in  one  or  two  years.  They  should  be  set 
from  six  to  eight  feet  apart.  If  they  have  made  a  vigorous 
growth,  it  is  best  to  cut  them  back  so  there  will  not  be 
more  than  four  good  buds  on  the  stem. 

In  the  spring  take  up  the  study  of  grape  vines.  Com- 
pare with  other  shrubs  and  trees  as  to  the  time  of  opening 
leaf  buds?  How  does  the  plant  climb?  Where  are  the 
tendrils  situated?  How  many  divisions  in  one  tendril? 
What  does  the  tendril  do  in  order  to  cling  to  a  support? 
Which  do  you  think  helps  support  the  plant  more,  the 
twining  stem  or  the  tendrils? 

Watch  for  the  flowers.  Are  they  early  or  late  in  open- 
ing ?  Can  you  account  for  the  late  flowering  ?  Where  are 
the  flowers,  on  last  year's  wood  or  this  year's?  Where 
situated  on  the  new  stem  ?  You  can  readily  see  from  this 
that  the  flowers  cannot  open  early.  Are  there  flowers  on 


146         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

all  of  last  year's  stems?  Are  the  flowers  single  or  in 
clusters  ?  Study  one  flower  carefully,  making  out  its  parts. 
The  flower  is  an  interesting  one.  Note  how  the  petals  are 
united  to  form  a  sort  of  cap  above  the  stamens  and  pistil. 

It  is  only  the  strongest  of  the  new  branches  or  canes,  as 
nurserymen  call  them,  that  bear  fruit.  What  may  be 
done  to  have  large  clusters  of  well-developed  fruit  ?  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  too  many  clusters  on  a  vine  will  result  in 
small  grapes.  The  secret  of  having  large  clusters  of  good, 
juicy  sweet  fruit  is  the  pruning.  The  pruning  should  be 
done  in  the  winter  not  later  than  the  last  of  February. 
Since  the  fruit  is  borne  on  wood  of  the  present  season  every 
bud  on  last  year's  cane  may  produce  a  shoot  that  will  bear 
fruit.  But  if  this  should  happen  it  would  mean  many 
small,  imperfect  clusters.  What  may  be  done  to  remedy 
this  ?  Cut  out  some  of  the  canes,  leaving  the  most  promis- 
ing ones.  Those  of  medium  thickness  are  usually  con- 
sidered best.  All  the  long,  slender  ones  and  the  stout  ones 
should  be  removed.  The  canes  that  are  left  should  be  cut 
back  to  eight  or  ten  buds,  thus  reducing  the  possible  clusters 
on  each  cane. 

In  the  fall  make  a  study  of  the  fruit.  Make  a  cross 
section  through  the  middle.  Where  are  the  seeds,  in  the 
upper  or  lower  half  ?  Do  the  number  of  seeds  vary  in  the 
same  variety  of  grape  ?  Obtain  as  many  different  varieties 
as  possible  and  compare  as  to  size  of  fruit,  yield,  flavor,  etc. 

Of  the  purple  grapes  the  Concord  is  the  most  widely 
grown.  It  is  hardy  and  free  from  many  of  the  diseases 
that  are  likely  to  attack  other  varieties.  Moore's  early, 
Campbell's  early,  and  the  Worden  are  considered  by  many 
people  good  varieties. 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  147 

Of  the  red  grapes  the  Delaware  is  best  known,  and  with 
good  cultivation  and  spraying  it  is  a  very  satisfactory 
variety. 

White  grapes  are  not  so  widely  grown  as  either  purple 
or  red,  but  are  to  many  persons  the  most  delicious  of  all 
the  grapes.  One  of  the  best  varieties  of  the  white  grape  is 
the  Niagara. 

If  there  are  wild  grapes,  Virginia  creeper  or  woodbine, 
or  Boston  ivy  in  the  vicinity  make  a  comparative  study  of 
these  in  connection  with  the  grapes.  Note  difference  and 
resemblance.  What  common  characteristics  place  these 
and  the  grape  in  the  same  family  ? 

CLOVERS.— Eighth  Grade 

Problems. — What  characteristics  make  red  clover  a  good 
I  or  age  plant?  Why  is  it  a  valuable  plant  in  its  relation 
to  soil? 

If  possible  the  first  lesson  should  be  in  the  field.  Note 
the  habit  of  growth  of  the  plant;  a  rather  loose  rosette  close 
to  the  ground.  How  many  stems  do  you  find  in  one  rosette  ? 
Do  the  stems  branch  ?  Where  do  you  find  the  new  shoots 
appearing  ?  Is  there  any  advantage  to  the  plant  in  grow- 
ing thus  close  to  the  ground  with  new  shoots  at  the  center  ? 
Bring  out  by  discussion  the  chance  this  gives  for  the  natural 
coverings,  leaves  and  snow,  to  protect  the  plant  during  the 
winter.  Note  the  arrangement  of  leaves  and  the  number 
of  leaflets.  Later  compare  with  other  clovers  to  deter- 
mine whether  this  is  a  common  characteristic  of  the  clover 
family.  What  special  markings  has  the  red  clover  leaflets  ? 
The  light  green  spots.  Look  at  the  leaflets  after  sunset  to 


148    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

see  if  they  remain  in  the  same  position  as  during  the  day- 
light. Study  the  flowers.  Are  they  arranged  singly  or  in 
clusters  ?  Have  the  pupils  decide  for  themselves  whether 
or  not  a  clover  head  is  a  single  flower  or  a  number  of 
flowers.  Find  the  parts  of  one  flower;  compare  with  a 
sweet  pea  flower.  How  many  flowers  do  you  find  in  one 
head?  Which  flowers  open  first;  those  on  the  outside  of 
the  head  or  those  at  the  center  ?  Examine  a  number  before 
deciding.  Examine  some  old  faded  flowers  for  the  seeds; 
where  are  they  ?  Does  one  flower  produce  more  than  one 
seed?  When  should  clover  be  mown  to  make  good  hay? 
It  should  be  cut  just  when  the  flowers  are  beginning  to 
fade.  How  does  it  compare  with  other  kinds  of  hay? 
The  stems  and  leaves  contain  so  much  nutritious  food  that 
it  is  considered  one  of  the  most  important  hay  crops  grown. 
Will  the  plant  produce  a  second  crop?  Does  this  second 
crop  produce  flowers  and  seeds?  The  second  crop  is 
frequently  cut  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  seeds  for 
market  or  to  sow  a  new  plat  next  spring.  How  is  the  seed 
obtained?  By  running  the  plants  through  a  machine 
something  like  a  thresher,  known  as  a  clover  huller. 

Dig  up  a  plant  and  study  the  root.  Note  size,  length, 
and  branches.  What  advantage  is  this  thick,  long  root 
to  the  plant?  What  advantage  to  the  soil?  What  else 
do  you  find  on  the  roots  ?  These  small  bodies  are  nodules 
or  tubercles.  Where  do  you  find  the  tubercles  most  nu- 
merous ?  Count  the  number  on  a  small  root.  What  are  the 
tubercles  ?  They  are  growths  on  the  root  caused  by  small 
living  organisms  known  as  bacteria.  These  bacteria  take 
from  the  air  in  the  soil  the  free  nitrogen  and  act  upon  this 
in  the  tubercles  so  that  the  plant  can  use  it  just  as  it  can  the 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  149 

more  usual  supply  of  soil  nitrogen  that  enters  through  the 
root  hairs  in  solution  in  the  soil  water.  From  your  study 
of  soils  and  the  elements  they  contain  that  are  used  by 
the  plants  in  making  foods,  you  know  that  nitrogen  is  often 
lacking  in  the  soil  and  that  to  supply  it  with  commercial 
fertilizers  is  an  expensive  thing  to  do.  It  is  very  much 
cheaper  to  sow  clover  and  let  these  bacteria  gather  the 
nitrogen  from  the  air  and  in  this  way  give  a  fresh  supply  to 
the  soil. 

Instead  of  harvesting  the  second  crop  of  clover  many 
farmers  plow  it  under.  Why?  Because  the  roots  and 
stems  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  for  other  crops,  and  because 
the  leaves  of  the  clover  decay  quickly  and  enrich  the  soil 
by  a  fresh  supply  of  humus.  Have  the  pupils  look  for 
other  clovers  in  the  neighborhood  and  bring  in  specimens 
for  study.  Sweet  clover  and  white  clover  will  be  found  in 
abundance  and  in  some  places  alsike  clover  and  alfalfa. 
Note  the  characteristics  common  to  these  plants.  Ex- 
amine the  roots  to  determine  whether  or  not  all  have 
nodules.  Study  the  stem  of  the  white  clover.  Note  how 
the  plant  spreads  over  an  area.  Why  is  it  a  good  lawn 
plant?  Have  grown  in  the  school  garden  for  a  compara- 
tive study  a  few  specimen  plants  of  other  legumes  than 
clovers.  Soy  beans  and  cow  peas  should  be  grown  as 
they  are  often  used  instead  of  clover  as  nitrogen-fixing 
plants. 

BUMBLEBEES.— Eighth  Grade 

Problems. — What  is  the  relation  of  bumblebees  to  red 
clover?  To  what  extent  do  these  bees  show  division  of 
labor? 


150         NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

If  the  pupils  study  red  clover  in  the  field  they  will  be 
sure  to  find  bumblebees.  If  they  are  quiet  they  will  be  ! 
able  to  get  close  enough  to  see  what  they  are  doing.  Watch 
a  bee  go  over  a  head  of  clover.  Where  does  it  put  its 
tongue  to  get  the  nectar?  Where  is  the  nectar  secreted 
in  the  flower?  Remove  one  of  the  flowers.  Put  the 
lower  tip  of  it  in  your  mouth  and  you  can  taste  the  sweet 
nectar  at  the  base  of  the  corolla  tube.  How  far  down 
must  the  bumblebee  thrust  its  tongue  in  order  to  procure 
the  nectar  ?  On  what  part  of  its  body  is  it  likely  to  collect 
pollen  ?  Watch  to  see  whether  one  bee  visits  several  heads 
in  succession.  Capture  several  bees  for  close  observa- 
tion. This  may  be  done  with  an  insect  net,  or  by  quickly 
thrusting  a  pint  Mason  jar  over  a  flower  on  which  a  bee  is 
feeding.  Have  the  lid  ready  to  put  on  the  jar  the  instant 
the  bee  is  inside.  Place  the  bees  in  a  terrarium  in  the 
schoolroom.  Feed  them  on  honey  or  sweetened  water. 
Place  in  a  bottle  of  water  several  flowering  stems  of  clover 
or  other  flowers  and  set  in  the  terrarium.  The  bees  will 
help  themselves  to  the  nectar.  Pupils  will  be  able  to  see 
here  better  than  out  of  doors  how  the  tongue  is  used. 
They  can  see  this  especially  well  when  the  bee  is  licking  up 
a  drop  of  honey  or  sweetened  water.  Have  pupils  note  the 
covering  of  the  body.  Of  what  advantage  is  the  hairy 
covering  in  conveying  pollen?  Note  the  legs.  Do  the 
last  pair  differ  at  all  from  the  others  ?  Are  there  hairs  on 
the  legs  ?  How  many  different  things  can  you  see  the  bee 
doing  with  its  legs  ?  Breathe  gently  on  the  bee  and  notice 
how  it  uses  its  legs  to  clean  its  body.  What  is  the  color  of 
the  wings  ?  How  many  wings  ?  How  do  they  differ  from 
those  of  the  honeybee?  You  can  always  tell  a  bumble- 


TYPICAL  LESSON  PLANS  151 

bee  no  matter  how  small  it  is  by  its  brown,  smoky  wings. 
Of  what  value  is  the  bumblebee  to  the  red  clover  ?  It  is 
the  chief  agent  in  carrying  pollen  from  one  flower  to 
another.  Without  the  bumblebees  probably  there  would 
be  little  pollination  of  the  red  clover,  which  would  mean 
great  reduction  in  seed  production. 

There  are  many  different  species  of  bumblebees. 
You  can  tell  the  difference  chiefly  by  the  size  and  color  of 
markings,  some  having  much  more  yellow  than  others. 
In  habits  and  characteristics  they  are  all  similar.  The  pu- 
pils should  learn  something  of  the  division  of  labor  among 
them.  They  will  be  able  to  find  the  large  drones  and  the 
workers,  possibly  the  queens.  They  may  find  a  nest  of 
these  bees  and  know  that  they  live  in  hollows  in  the  ground 
or  under  brush  piles.  The  nest  of  a  field  mouse  is  a  com- 
mon home  of  this  bee.  Only  the  queens  live  over  winter. 
In  the  spring  each  queen  starts  a  colony.  Having  found 
a  suitable  place  for  her  home  she  gathers  from  flowers 
quantities  of  pollen  and  some  nectar.  She  mixes  these 
together  and  makes  a  pasty  ball.  On  this  she  deposits 
eggs,  from  five  to  twenty,  which  hatch  into  bumblebee 
larvae.  These  feed  upon  the  mass  of  pollen.  When  they 
are  grown  up  as  larvae  they  spin  cocoons  and  change  to 
pupae,  and  after  about  two  weeks  they  emerge  as  grown- 
up bees.  All  of  the  first  brood  are  workers.  They  collect 
pollen  for  the  home,  feed  the  young,  and  sometimes  store 
a  little  honey.  The  queen  now  gives  most  of  her  time  to 
depositing  eggs.  Late  in  the  summer  drones  and  queens 
appear.  The  drones  and  workers  die  in  the  fall,  but  the 
females  seek  a  sheltered  nook  into  which  they  creep  and 

spend  the  winter. 
11 


152    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Following  the  lessons  on  the  bumblebee  their  relatives 
should  be  taken  up  for  a  comparative  study.  The  charac- 
teristics which  place  these  insects  in  the  same  group  should 
be  noted.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  method 
of  caring  for  the  young  and  the  advance  shown  in  division 
of  labor  by  the  different  families.  Mud  daubers,  polistes, 
hornets,  honeybees,  and  ants  should  be  taken  up  in  order. 


PART  THREE 
CHAPTER   X 

OUTLINE     IN     NATURE     STUDY     AND     ELEMENTARY     AGRI- 
CULTURE  FOR  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

THE  first  part  of  this  outline  consists  of  topics  for 
the  grades  below  the  seventh.  So  far  as  possible,  these 
have  been  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  may  be 
taken  up  for  study.  The  second  part  includes  topics  for 
lessons  in  elementary  agriculture  for  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades.  This  outline  is  followed  by  expanded  treat- 
ment of  the  topics  which  compose  it. 

FIRST  PART 

September 

Propagation  by  cuttings:  this  should  be  done  as  early 
as  possible,  so  that  the  plants  will  get  a  good  start  before 
cold  weather. 

Insects :  select  some  that  are  of  special  interest  from  an 
economic  standpoint;  others  that  are  interesting  in  them- 
selves; and  help  the  children  to  understand  the  habits  and 
characteristics  of  all  insects.  Any  of  the  following  are  good 
types:  grasshopper,  cricket,  tomato  worm,  woolly  bear 
caterpillar,  butterflies,  mud  dauber,  paper  wasp. 

Garden  plants:  nasturtium,  sweet  pea,  morning-glory. 


154         NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Birds:  incidental  observations,  to  be  continued  through 
the  year. 

Fruits:  peach,  apple,  pear. 

October 

Spiders:  webs,  egg  cocoons,  etc. 

Weeds:  kinds,  characteristics,  seed  dissemination,  etc. 
Vines:  morning-glory,  grape^  etc. 
Fall  wild  flowers,  especially  golden-rod. 
Trees:  incidental  observation  to  be  continued  through- 
out the  year;  special  study  of  nut  trees:  planting  of  nuts. 
Bulb  gardening. 

November 

Garden  plants  that  are  still  living:  beet,  parsnip,  etc. 

Forcing  of  bulbs. 

Golden-rod  galls:  other  galls  that  may  be  found. 

Preparation  of  insects  for  winter. 

Honeybees. 

Effects  of  cold  weather  on  plants,  animals,  and  people. 

December 

Evergreen  trees. 

Winter  birds:  crow,  jay,  chickadee,  hairy  and  downy 
woodpecker;  put  up  suet  or  bones  to  attract  birds  to  the 
schoolhouse. 

Cat,  dog,  squirrel. 

January 

Field  animals:  rabbit,  fieldmouse,  gopher,  ground 
squirrel. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  FOR  SCHOOLS    155 

Continue  bird  and  tree  study. 
Weather:  snow,  sleet,  and  ice. 


February 

Domestic  animals  with  special  reference  to  their  use  and 
care :  horse,  cow,  sheep,  pig. 

March 

Poultry:  chickens,  ducks,  etc. 
Early  flowering  trees. 
Frog  and  toad  eggs. 
First  migratory  birds. 
Condition  of  roads  and  fields. 

April 

Early  wild  flowers. 

Small  fruits :  special  study  of  strawberry  and  gooseberry. 

Continue  study  of  beets  started  in  fall. 

Life  in  water:  water  beetles  and  bugs. 

Tree  study  with  special  attention  to  opening  of  buds, 
care  of  trees;  observation  of  Arbor  Day. 

Discuss  making  of  flower  beds  and  decide  what  seeds 
to  plant.  Plant  early  varieties  in  school  or  house  gardens. 

Plant  vines. 

May 

Continue  planting  seeds. 

Life  in  water:  dragon  fly,  mosquito,  etc. 

Set  out  geraniums  kept  over  winter. 


156         NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

Study  of  birds  that  nest  in  the  vicinity;  of  birds  that 
pass  through  here  going  farther  north  to  nest. 

Insect  life  in  spring:  ladybugs,  moths,  butterflies. 


SECOND   PART 

Seventh  Grade — Fall  Term 

Study  of  flowers  with  pollination  and  fertilization :  corn 
plant  and  flowers. 

Plant  breeding,  with  special  reference  to  production  of 
the  best  types  of  corn. 

Insects  injurious  to  farm,  garden,  and  fruit  crops  with 
methods  of  combating. 

Fungi,  including  fungous  diseases  of  grains  and  other 
plants. 

Propagation  by  means  of  budding;  making  of  a  peach 
tree. 

Winter  wheat. 

Seventh  Grade — Winter  Term 

Simple  experiments  in  physics:  evaporation  and  con- 
densation; effects  of  heat  on  different  substances;  different 
methods  of  heating  bodies. 

Application  of  physical  principles  to  weather  phe- 
nomena. 

Seventh  Grade — Spring  Term 

Germination  of  seeds  with  experiments:  testing  seed 
corn.  (This  may  be  done  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  term 
if  desired.) 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  FOR   SCHOOLS    157 

Propagation  by  grafting:  making  of  an  apple  tree; 
apple  culture  in  a  region  where  apple  raising  is  one  of  the 
chief  industries;  compare  pear  culture. 

Oats:  seed  testing,  method  of  culture,  varieties,  etc. 

Legumes:  red  clover,  alfalfa,  etc.;  other  forage  plants. 

Potato  culture  with  experiments:  this  should  be  em- 
phasized where  potatoes  form  one  of  the  staple  crops. 

Insects  in  connection  with  plants  studied,  such  as 
codling  moth,  cankerworm,  bumblebee,  potato  beetle. 

Eighth  Grade — Fall  Term 

Plant  products  with  experiments:  simple  experiments 
in  the  elements  of  soil  chemistry;  elements  used  by  plants 
hrmanufacturing  food  products;  compounds  found  in  soil; 
use  of  fertilizers. 

Origin  of  soil. 

Eighth  Grade — Winter  Term 

Simple  experiments  in  soil  physics;  porosity  and  capil- 
larity; power  to  hold  water;  forms  in  which  water  exists  in 
the  soil;  air  in  the  soil,  etc. 

Farm  animals  with  methods  of  feeding,  housing,  etc. 

Eighth  Grade — Spring  Term 

Relation  of  plants  to  soil,  air,  and  water  with  experi- 
ments. 

Work  of  plants  in  manufacturing,  digesting,  and  storing 
food. 

Method  of  retaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Earthworm  in  relation  to  soil. 


CHAPTER   XI 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  RURAL   SCHOOLS   WITH   CROWDED 
PROGRAMMES 

MANY  rural  teachers  find  lack  of  time  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal obstacles  to  nature  study  work.  The  daily  pro- 
gramme is  already  full  and  local  requirements  may  prevent 
much  alteration.  But  it  is  possible  to  do  much  profitable 
work  with  nature  subjects  even  under  these  conditions. 
It  need  not  involve  encroachment  upon  time  scheduled  for 
other  work;  instead  it  may  prove  a  valuable  adjunct  for 
other  work,  forming  in  some  cases  a  center  around  which 
other  subjects  may  be  grouped.  It  may  be  made  to  lend 
new  and  attractive  meaning  to  geography,  to  relate  arith- 
metic to  actual  needs  in  the  lives  of  the  children,  and  to 
make  possible  a  true  interpretation  of  much  of  the  reading. 
It  affords  the  best  possible  basis  for  written  and  oral  ex- 
pression. No  other  subject  lends  itself  so  readily  to  com- 
position work.  The  pupils  no  longer  look  upon  the  writing 
of  compositions  as  drudgery,  for  they  have  something  of 
their  own  to  write  about,  things  they  have  seen  and  ob- 
served and  are  interested  in. 

Nearly  every  school  has  a  short  period  each  day  for 
general  exercises,  a  time  when  the  minds  of  all  the  pupils 
are  to  be  centered  upon  the  same  thing.  A  portion  of  this 
period  may  be  used  two  or  three  times  each  week  for  nature 

158 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR   RURAL   SCHOOLS          159 

study;  also  an  occasional  recitation  period  in  geography 
and  language. 

Much  of  the  observation  may  be  done  informally  by 
the  children  outside  of  school  hours.  The  teacher  will  be 
able  to  guide  the  observations  along  definite  lines,  and  to 
keep  up  the  interest  by  skillful  questions  and  suggestions. 

To  illustrate:  On  Monday  morning  say  to  the  children 
that  you  wonder  how  many  things  they  can  find  out  about 
spiders  this  week.  Give  them  a  few  definite  suggestions, 
such  as,  "notice  in  what  different  places  you  find  spiders, 
what  they  are  doing,  and  where  webs  are  made.  How  do 
the  webs  differ  from  one  another?  Touch  different  parts 
of  a  round  web  and  note  what  happens,"  etc.  On  the  next 
day  ask  who  has  seen  a  spider  since  the  day  before.  Let 
one  or  two  tell  where  they  saw  it.  Give  an  additional  hint 
for  observation,  such  as,  "  I  wonder  who  noticed  how  many 
legs  a  spider  has  ?  "  Do  not  let  anyone  tell  them.  Do  not 
take  more  than  two  or  three  minutes  for  this  matter;  just 
enough  to  stimulate  interest,  and  make  the  pupils  eager  to 
see  more.  On  Friday  devote  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  to  the 
discussion.  Encourage  each  child  to  tell  just  what  he  has 
found  out.  You  probably  will  be  surprised  at  the  fund  of 
facts  brought  together  and  at  the  questions  the  children  will 
ask.  If  the  interest  warrants,  carry  the  work  on  this  day 
over  into  the  language  period.  Have  the  children  tell  on 
paper  some  of  the  things  they  have  learned. 

Work  conducted  in  this  way  is  preferable,  in  some 
respects,  even  to  class  work.  Its  greatest  merit  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  children  are  working  independently.  Each  is 
seeing  for  himself,  thinking  for  himself,  and  finding  out  his 
own  problems.  Some  will  see  more  than  others,  of  course, 


160    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

because  of  natural  ability  and  innate  interest,  but  the  slow- 
est will  see  something  and  will  be  all  the  better  equipped  to 
see  more  next  time. 

In  some  weeks,  instead  of  having  the  entire  school 
working  along  the  same  lines,  let  one  grade  alone  or  two 
grades  together  work  up  a  special  subject.  Follow  the 
same  general  plan  as  that  suggested  above,  except  that  two 
or  three  minutes  of  a  recitation  period  should  be  taken  to 
arouse  interest  and  to  keep  it  going.  Toward  the  last  of 
the  week  use  the  geography  or  language  period  for  reports 
on  observations. 

The  making  of  cuttings,  bulb  gardening,  planting  of 
seeds,  etc.,  may  be  done  the  last  hour  on  Friday  afternoon. 
The  work  should  be  planned  so  that  by  division  of  labor 
much  may  be  accomplished  in  a  short  time.  One  group 
may  prepare  the  soil,  another  start  to  make  the  cuttings, 
another  get  the  water,  and  another  take  charge  of  placing 
the  cuttings  in  the  propagation  box.  When  the  plants  are 
actually  started  their  observation  and  care  may  be  dis- 
cussed as  a  general  exercise  topic. 

Teachers  should  not  feel  that  every  subject  treated  in 
this  way  must  be  rounded  up  to  a  finish.  Indeed,  no  nature 
study  lesson  can,  in  the  true  sense,  ever  be  completed. 
The  children  should  be  so  guided  that  they  will  feel  this, 
and  have  a  desire  to  go  on  finding  out  neW  things,  seeing 
new  relations,  and  solving  new  problems.  Neither  should 
the  teacher  feel  overwhelmed  at  the  number  of  topics  sug- 
gested in  the  outline.  She  should  not  attempt  too  much, 
but  select  a  few  lines  of  work  that  seem  best  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  her  children.  She  should  realize  that  the  main 
purpose  of  the  work  is  not  to  accumulate  a  great  number  of 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR   RURAL   SCHOOLS          161 

facts,  but  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  children  in  natural 
objects,  and  to  train  them  in  accurate  and  independent 
observation  that  they  may  appreciate  and  enjoy  the  world 
of  living  objects  with  which  they  are  surrounded. 

Work  in  certain  subjects,  such  as  trees,  birds,  wild 
flowers,  and  weather,  may  well  begin  at  the  first  of  the  fall 
term  and  be  carried  on  throughout  the  school  year.  Re- 
ports may  be  called  for  each  week  or  fortnightly. 

To  illustrate:  The  teacher  may  state  some  morning, 
when  it  happens  to  be  true,  "I  saw  a  robin  (or  a  meadow 
lark,  or  a  blackbird)  this  morning.  I  wonder  if  there  are 
many  birds  here  now?  Let  us  see  what  ones  we  can  find 
this  week,  where  they  are,  and  what  they  are  doing."  Ask 
questions  occasionally  to  keep  the  interest  alive.  When 
the  time  for  reports  arrives  let  the  children  have  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  in  which  to  talk  about  birds.  The  interest 
is  almost  certain  to  be  enthusiastic.  In  fact,  a  check  on 
excitement  is  sometimes  desirable.  A  chart  on  which  are 
entered  the  names  of  birds  seen  each  week  by  the  children 
is  desirable. 


CHAPTER    XII 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   TREE   STUDY 

THE  purpose  of  tree  study  in  the  grades,  besides  the 
educational  value  that  comes  with  the  study  of  any  living 
object,  is  to  lead  the  children  to  form  the  acquaintance  of 
the  trees  in  the  neighborhood,  to  learn  how  to  protect  and 
care  for  them,  and  to  appreciate  the  value  of  trees  in  the 
industrial  world  and  in  their  own  lives. 

For  the  beginning  of  the  work  select  any  tree  that  is 
near  the  school  building.  If  practicable,  for  the  first 
lesson  take  the  children  out  to  observe  this  tree.  If  not, 
then  ask  the  children  how  many  know  the  name  of  the 
tree  standing  at  the  corner  of  the  yard?  If  they  do  not 
know,  tell  them.  Ask  them  to  look  at  it  closely,  and  tell 
you  to-morrow  whether  the  trunk  is  smooth  or  rough, 
whether  it  has  many  large  branches,  and  whether  the  trunk 
and  branches  are  the  same  color.  Do  the  branches  spread 
out  or  grow  straight  upward  ?  Does  the  tree  make  a  good 
shade  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  tree  ?  Stand  off  at  some 
distance  and  look  at  it.  Is  it  round  ?  Is  it  wide  at  the  bottom 
and  pointed  at  the  top  like  a  pyramid?  Is  it  in  the  form  of 
a  wide  column,  or  is  it  shaped  like  an  umbrella  ? 

The  next  day  take  a  few  minutes  to  discuss  the  observa- 
tions of  the  children.  Have  a  few  twigs  of  the  tree  in  the 
schoolroom.  Note  how  the  leaves  are  arranged  on  the 
twigs.  Are  they  opposite  or  alternate.  What  is  the  shape 

162 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TREE  STUDY  163 

of  a  leaf?  Lay  the  twig  down  on  the  table  spreading  the 
leaves  out ;  do  they  overlap  one  another  very  much  ?  Stand 
under  the  tree  and  look  up.  Do  the  leaves  completely 
screen  the  sky  from  your  view  ?  Are  there  any  leaves  en- 
tirely shaded  by  others?  Are  the  stems  of  all  the  leaves 
the  same  length?  Where  are  the  youngest  leaves  on  the 
twigs?  How  can  you  tell?  Are  all  the  leaves  exactly 
the  same  shape?  Are  they  the  same  color  on  the  upper 
and  under  surface?  Can  you  tell  how  much  of  the  twig 
has  grown  this  year  ?  It  will  make  an  interesting  exercise 
to  compare  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  trees  as  to  the 
growth  the  twigs  have  made  during  the  season. 

Do  you  find  anything  else  on  the  twig  besides  leaves  ? 
Where  are  the  tiny  buds  situated  ?  We  say  when  they  are 
situated  between  the  leaf  stem  and  the  twig  that  they  are  in 
the  axil  of  the  leaf.  Is  there  a  bud  in  the  axil  of  every  leaf  ? 
Is  there  a  bud  at  the  end  of  the  twig  ?  What  are  the  buds 
for  ?  The  tree,  then,  has  been  getting  ready  for  next  year. 

Some  of  the  trees  will  still  have  their  fruit  hanging  on 
them.  Such  are  Norway  maple,  ash,  hackberry,  box- 
elder,  birch,  catalpa,  alder,  sycamore,  locust,  and  chestnut. 
If  these  trees  are  selected  for  study,  note  where  the  fruit  is 
fastened  to  the  twig  and  whether  or  not  there  is  a  cluster 
of  seeds.  Have  the  seeds  any  special  adaptation  for  dis- 
semination ?  Open  up  one  of  the  so-called  seeds  to  find  the 
true  seed  on  the  inside.  If  there  are  no  seeds  on  the  tree, 
look  on  the  ground  for  some  that  may  have  fallen  off. 
The  sugar  maple  drops  its  fruit  in  the  latter  part  of  summer. 
Have  the  children  gather  seeds  of  different  kinds  and  plant 
them. 

Have  the  children  look  at  home  for  trees  of  the  same 


1 64          NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

kind  that  are  studied  at  school.  If  you  live  in  a  prairie 
region,  start  the  children  to  investigate  how  the  trees  came 
to  be  where  they  are.  Try  to  discover  the  age  of  some 
of  the  largest  trees  in  the  district.  Who  set  them  out  ? 
How  many  different  kinds  of  trees  are  there  in  the  dis- 
trict? Are  there  any  trees  scattered  about  here  and  there 
that  were  not  set  out  by  anyone  ?  Cotton  woods,  willows, 
box-elders,  and  elms  are  frequently  found  along  ditches  or 
fences  or  in  the  field.  How  did  they  come  here  ?  Did  the 
children  ever  see  any  of  the  cotton  with  the  tiny  seeds 
attached  that  fly  from  the  cottonwoods  and  willows  in  the 
middle  of  the  summer? 

If  you  live  near  a  woods  then  study  the  native  trees, 
Select  a  special  tree  for  the  first  detailed  study,  as  an  oak, 
a  hickory,  or  a  beech.  Note  shape  of  the  tree,  method  of 
branching,  appearance  and  color  of  bark.  Is  there  more 
than  one  kind  of  oak  ?  The  shape  of  the  oak  leaves  helps 
to  distinguish  one  kind  from  another.  There  are  two 
general  shapes  of  oak  leaves.  One  has  the  lobes  rounded, 
the  other  has  lobes  that  are  sharp  and  pointed.  The 
white  bur  and  chestnut  oaks  have  rounded  lobes;  while 
black,  red,  pin,  and  scarlet  oaks  have  pointed  lobes. 
Note  the  color  of  the  leaves  above  and  below.  Are  they 
all  equally  smooth  and  shiny  on  both  sides  ? 

Are  there  any  acorns  on  the  trees?  Where  are  they 
situated;  on  this  year's  twig  or  last  year's?  Have  the 
acorns  stems  or  do  they  grow  very  close  to  the  twig?  Is 
the  saucer  shallow  or  deep  ?  Open  an  acorn  and  see  what 
is  inside.  Are  any  of  the  acorns  good  to  eat  ?  Those  of 
the  white  and  chestnut  oaks  are  relished  by  many  people. 
Plant  some  acorns. 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR  TREE  STUDY  165 

Compare  other  nut  trees  with  the  oak.  How  many 
different  kinds  can  you  find  ?  How  are  the  different  nuts 
protected  in  walnut,  hickory,  and  beech  ?  When  do  these 
trees  drop  their  nuts? 

Compare  trees  that  are  growing  close  together  with 
others  of  the  same  kind  that  are  standing  at  some  distance 
from  other  large  trees.  Why  are  the  former  more  one- 
sided than  the  latter  ? 

When  the  leaves  of  the  tree  begin  to  change  color  have 
the  children  note  the  different  colors.  Does  each  kind  of 
tree  have  a  special  autumn  color?  Which  ones  are  the 
brightest?  Why  do  the  leaves  change  color?  The 
children  will  probably  say,  as  they  have  heard  others  say, 
that  this  is  due  to  frost.  But  they  should  know  that  the 
real  reason  is  that  the  leaves  have  completed  their  work, 
and  that  the  green  color  fades  or  is  replaced  by  the  bril- 
liant hues  because  the  leaves  are  growing  old  and  getting 
ready  to  drop  off. 

When  do  the  leaves  begin  to  fall?  Do  some  trees 
finish  their  work  and  drop  their  leaves  sooner  than  others  ? 
Do  any  of  the  trees  retain  their  leaves  after  they  are  dry 
and  withered  ?  Does  any  of  the  fruit  hang  on  over  winter  ? 

At  least  once  during  the  winter  have  the  children  note 
the  appearance  of  the  special  tree  or  trees  studied  in  the 
fall.  Note  the  shape  of  the  branches.  Are  the  twigs 
drooping  or  standing  upright?  Does  this  tree  show  any 
tints  of  color  now  that  could  not  be  seen  when  the  leaves 
were  on  ?  Can  you  see  the  buds  on  the  twigs  ? 

In  the  spring  continue  the  study.  What  do  the  side 
buds  make?  The  end  buds?  To  answer  this,  watch  the 
development  of  the  buds  outside,  or  place  twigs  in  glasses 


1 66          NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

of  water  in  the  schoolroom.  Do  any  of  the  buds  prove 
to  be  flower  buds?  Any  of  the  maples,  elm,  beech,  or 
box-elder  are  good  to  show  the  beauty  of  the  tree  flowers. 
Note  whether  the  maple  and  box-elder  flowers  all  have 
stamens  and  pistils.  You  will  find  the  stamens  in  one 
flower  and  the  pistils  in  another.  Watch  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit  from  the  flower.  The  soft  or  white 
maple  and  the  elm  both  mature  their  seeds  very  early  in 
the  spring.  The  elm  fruit  is  ripe  before  the  leaves  are 
fully  developed.  Make  a  special  study  of  these  seeds. 
Plant  some  to  see  if  they  grow  the  first  season.  Why  do 
you  find  young  elms  along  walks  and  'fences  ? 

The  uses  of  trees  should  constitute  part  of  the  work. 
This  may  be  coordinated  with  the  geography  work  in  the 
study  of  lumbering,  paper  making,  building,  carpentry, 
etc.  Also  the  value  of  forests  in  soil  making  should  be 
considered. 

Interesting  topics  for  some  of  the  older  pupils  to  work 
up  are:  What  is  being  done  to  preserve  our  native  forests? 
What  are  the  things  that  are  destroying  our  forests?  Tree 
planting  in  prairie  states.  Arbor  Day. 

In  connection  with  tree  study  Arbor  Day  should  be 
celebrated,  and  an  effort  made  to  set  out  a  few  shade  trees 
or  shrubs  on  the  school  grounds.  Let  the  children  help  to 
decide  what  trees  shall  be  planted.  Some  of  them  may 
have  growing  about  their  homes  seedling  elms,  maples, 
box-elders,  etc.,  that  they  will  be  glad  to  have  trans- 
planted to  the  school  yard.  Discuss  where  the  trees 
should  be  planted  to  give  the  best  effect,  and  yet  be  out  of 
the  way.  If  the  grounds  are  large,  a  row  of  trees  may  be 
planted  across  the  back  of  the  lot,  a  few  along  the  sides, 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR  TREE   STUDY  167 

and  one  or  two  in  front.  How  to  plant  the  trees  should  be 
settled  before  attempting  to  set  them  out.  Some  points  to 
observe  are  the  following:  The  hole  should  be  large  enough 
to  allow  the  roots  to  spread  out  to  their  full  extent.  It 
should  be  deep  enough  so  that  the  tree  may  stand  three  or 
four  inches  lower  than  it  did  as  a  seedling.  The  roots 
should  be  kept  moist  until  ready  to  set  in  the  ground. 
Fine  soil  should  be  placed  around  the  roots  and  packed  in 
carefully.  As  more  soil  is  thrown  into  the  hole,  it  should  be 
packed  down  firmly  by  tramping  it  with  the  feet.  The  last 
two  or  three  inches  of  soil  should  be  fine  and  left  loose  to 
help  keep  in  the  moisture.  The  soil  should  be  moist,  but 
not  wet.  Most  horticulturists  believe  that  the  trees  do 
better  if  not  watered  at  the  time  of  planting.  The  weeds 
and  grass  should  be  kept  down  a  few  feet  around  the  young 
tree.  Cultivation  of  the  soil  now  and  then  by  digging 
around  the  tree  not  only  gives  a  chance  for  the  air  and 
water  to  enter  the  soil,  but  the  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil 
on  top  helps  to  retain  the  moisture. 

Helpful  Books  and  Bulletins:  Our  Native  Trees, 
Keeler;  Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves,  Mathews;  Prac- 
tical Tree  Planting,  Bulletin  No.  27  of  the  United  States 
Division  of  Forestry;  Farmers'  Bulletins  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds, 
No.  134;  Forest  Planting  and  Farm  Management,  No.  228; 
Primer  of  Forestry,  No.  173. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

CUTTINGS 

Problems. — (a)  What  is  the  best  way  to  make  successful 
cuttings?  (b)  What  are  the  advantages  in  propagating 
plants  by  cuttings  instead  of  seeds? 

Materials  Needed. — A  few  sharp  penknives,  a  box 
that  may  be  set  on  the  window  sill  (one  the  length  of  the 
window  and  about  six  inches  wide  and  five  or  six  deep 
will  serve  for  a  window  box  as  well  as  a  propagating  box) ; 
a  common  starch  box  or  several  chalk  boxes  will  do  if 
the  window  box  cannot  be  made.  A  few  holes  should  be 
bored  in  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and  a  couple  of  blocks 
arranged  on  the  window  sill  on  which  to  set  the  box. 
Place  some  clean  fine  sand  in  the  box;  soil  will  do  if  sand 
cannot  be  obtained.  Water  the  sand  thoroughly  and 
firm  it  down  with  a  flat  piece  of  board.  Make  a  groove 
about  an  inch  deep  with  an  old  caseknife.  Your  box  is 
now  ready  to  receive  the  cuttings. 

No  plant  is  better  to  make  successful  cuttings  from 
than  the  geranium.  If  there  are  none  growing  on  the 
school  grounds,  some  person  in  the  neighborhood  who  has 
plants  will  be  glad  to  let  you  have  a  number  of  large 
branches  or  entire  plants  from  which  to  make  cuttings. 
Select  the  growing  tip  of  a  stem  or  branch.  Cut  it  off 
three  or  four  inches  in  length  just  below  a  node  or  leaf. 
Make  one  clean,  horizontal  cut,  break  off  the  lower  leaves, 

168 


CUTTINGS  169 

and  trim  the  edges  off  the  upper  ones.  Why  is  this  done  ? 
Leave  this  as  a  problem. 

Now  place  the  cuttings  in  the  groove  made  in  the 
propagation  box.  Place  them  an  inch  or  more  apart  so 
the  leaves  will  have  room  enough  to  spread  out  and  get  the 
light.  When  one  groove  is  full,  press  the  sand  close  to  the 
stem  with  your  fingers.  When  all  the  cuttings  are  in, 
water  very  thoroughly  so  that  the  sand  will  be  washed  up 
close  around  the  stems.  Cover  from  the  light  for  a  day  or 
two  with  a  paper.  If  the  cuttings  do  not  come  to  the  top 
of  the  box,  a  pane  of  glass  laid  over  the  top  will  keep  the 
moisture  in  and  at  the  same  time  allow  plenty  of  light. 

In  caring  for  the  cuttings  keep  the  sand  moist,  but  not 
wet.  Allow  them  plenty  of  light  after  the  first  day,  but 
not  direct  sunlight.  If  a  glass  is  used  over  the  box,  it 
should  be  taken  off  for  half  an  hour  each  day.  Why? 
Plants  need  air  and  this  gives  a  chance  for  a  fresh  supply. 

When  the  cuttings  are  well-rooted  then  comes  the  lesson 
in  transplanting.  Have  the  children  bring  pots  in  which 
they  may  place  plants  to  take  home.  Baking-powder  cans, 
tomato  cans,  or  small  lard  pails  will  serve  just  as  well  as 
earthen  flowerpots.  With  a  nail  make  a  hole  in  the  bottom 
of  the  can.  What  for?  Have  the  children  bring  some 
garden  soil  or  get  some  from  a  field  near  by.  You  may  use 
this  as  it  is  or  you  may  make  an  excellent  soil  for  potted 
plants  by  mixing  thoroughly  one  part  of  the  garden  soil 
with  one-fourth  part  sand  and  one-fourth  humus,  well- 
rotted  leaf  mold  or  well-rotted  stable  manure.  Have  the 
soil  just  moist  enough  so  that  when  you  press  a  handful  of  it 
together  it  will  readily  fall  apart  when  dropped.  Cover 
the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  can  with  a  piece  of  brok 


OFTH 

i  r-  ri 


NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

flowerpot  concave  side  down,  or  place  a  few  pebbles  or 
bits  of  broken  crockery  or  brick  in  the  bottom  of  the  can. 
Why  do  you  do  this? 

An  old  caseknife  or  a  small  wooden  paddle  will  be 
found  useful  in  removing  the  plants  from  the  propagation 
box.  Fill  the  pot  about  half  full  of  soil,  then  place  the 
plant  in  position  in  the  middle,  and  hold  it  while  you  fill 
in  the  soil  around  it.  Press  the  soil  down  firmly  with  the 
thumbs,  water  well,  and  set  in  a  subdued  light.  After  a 
few  days  let  the  plant  have  plenty  of  light.  Keep  it  well 
watered,  but  do  not  allow  the  saucer  or  vessel  that  catches 
the  drainage  to  stand  full  of  water.  Why  ?  This  will  keep 
the  soil  standing  so  full  of  water  that  it  shuts  out  the 
air  and  the  roots  need  air  to  keep  them  alive. 

Special  Observations. — When  making  cuttings,  place 
three  or  four  extra  ones  in  the  propagation  box  for  ex- 
amination. When  time  for  transplanting  comes,  remove 
the  sand  or  soil  from  the  ends  of  these  to  see  what  has 
happened.  Has  the  cut  healed  ?  Gardeners  say  the  stem 
has  formed  a  callus.  If  it  does  not  form  a  callus,  or  heal, 
it  will  not  grow.  Where  have  the  roots  come  out  on  the 
stem?  Does  it  take  some  plants  longer  than  others  to 
produce  roots?  Put  in  several  different  kinds  and  note 
the  time  required.  Why  is  it  better  to  start  cuttings  in 
sand  or  soil  than  in  water?  The  plants  may  form  a 
callus  and  root  in  the  water,  but  they  are  not  as  likely  to 
do  well  when  transplanted.  The  roots  must  adjust  them- 
selves to  entirely  new  conditions,  and  this  they  may  not  be 
able  to  do  at  once  and  as  a  result  the  plant  may  die. 

After  the  plants  have  been  transplanted,  watch  the 
appearance  of  new  leaves.  Where  ?  How  does  the  stem 


CUTTINGS  171 

lengthen  ?  Where  do  new  branches  grow  out  ?  How  soon 
do  the  flowers  begin  to  make  their  appearance?  Have 
children  report  in  regard  to  those  they  have  taken  home. 

Let  one  pot  remain  with  the  same  side  toward  the 
window  for  a  number  of  days.  Turn  the  other  pots  every 
day  or  two.  Compare.  This  shows  very  well  how  plants 
seek  the  light. 

If  no  one  can  care  for  the  plants  in  the  schoolroom  over 
Saturday  and  Sunday  fill  the  saucers  with  water  Friday 
night.  This  will  provide  enough  moisture  till  Monday. 
During  the  cold  weather,  if  you  have  no  cellar  in  which  to 
place  the  plants  to  keep  them  from  freezing,  make  thick 
covers  of  paper  in  the  shape  of  cones  and  slip  over  the 
plants,  wrapping  extra  paper  around  the  pots.  In  this 
way  you  may  keep  your  plants  a  number  of  weeks  even  in 
very  cold  weather.  Do  not  attempt  to  keep  too  many. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  plants  that  are  easily  proga- 
gated  by  means  of  cuttings:  geraniums,  coleus  or  foliage 
plants,  wandering  Jew,  salvia,  impatiens  or  balsam,  oxalis, 
sultana,  alternanthera,  heliotrope. 

The  children  will  readily  see  the  following  advantages 
of  propagating  by  means  of  cuttings  instead  of  seeds,  (a) 
They  get  quicker  results;  the  plants  are  ready  to  flower  in 
half  the  time,  (b)  They  are  certain  to  get  the  same  kind 
of  plant  as  the  parent,  while  if  seeds  are  used  they  may 
get  one  color  or  variety  when  they  expected  another. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE   STUDY  OF  INSECTS 

THERE  are  several  good  reasons  why  children  of  the 
rural  schools  should  become  acquainted  with  the  insect 
life  about  their  homes.  Insects  are  so  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  life  and  success  of  crops  of  all  kinds  that 
it  is  much  worth  while  for  the  children  to  know  something 
of  the  habits  and  life  histories  of  these  little  creatures,  to 
recognize  friends  and  foes,  and  to  learn  some  of  the  ways 
of  combating  the  pests  and  increasing  the  numbers  of  the 
beneficial  ones.  Aside  from  this  practical  value  the  study 
is  worth  while  from  an  educational  standpoint. 

It  is  best,  except  in  a  few  cases,  to  study  insects  in 
relation  to  some  plant  or  plants  that  the  children  are  in- 
terested in. 

A  few  simple  pieces  of  apparatus  will  aid  in  the  study. 
Two  or  three  pint,  quart,  and  two-quart  Mason  jars,  a  few 
flowerpots  or  small  tin  pails  to  hold  soil,  two  or  three  large 
lamp  chimneys  or  lantern  globes,  and  a  wire  cage  or 
terrarium,  are  desirable.  The  terrarium  is  easily  made. 
Get  an  inch  board  for  the  bottom;  one  about  six  inches 
wide  and  two  feet  long  makes  a  convenient  cage  to  place 
on  a  window  sill.  Saw  out  the  corners,  fit  into  each  an 
upright  piece  about  fifteen  inches  high,  nail  these  uprights 
securely  to  the  bottom,  and  then  enclose  the  lower  part  of 
this  frame  with  boards  about  three  inches  high.  Complete 

172 


THE   STUDY  OF   INSECTS  173 

the  frame  by  nailing  pieces  of  board  to  the  top  of  the  up- 
rights. Cover  the  sides  with  wire  screening,  or  mosquito 
netting,  and  cover  the  top  with  a  piece  of  board  or  panes  of 
glass. 

A  simple  cage  for  some  insects  may  be  made  from  an 
ordinary  pasteboard  shoe  box.  Cut  rectangular  pieces 
out  of  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box  and  replace  these 
with  wire  screening  or  mosquito  netting.  Tie  a  string 
around  the  box  to  keep  the  lid  on,  stand  it  up  on  one  side, 
and  you  may  watch  the  movements  of  grasshoppers, 
katydids,  etc.  The  grasshopper  serves  well  as  a  typical 
study. 

Grasshoppers 

The  common  short-horned  grasshoppers  of  meadow 
and  roadside  are  good  insects  to  begin  with  for  the  purpose 
of  getting  the  children  acquainted  with  characteristics 
common  to  all  insects. 

Problem. — Where  do  these  grasshoppers  live  and  how 
do  they  move  about? 

Have  the  children  notice  the  different  places  in  which 
they  see  these  insects.  Watch  to  see  just  how  the  insects 
move  out  of  the  way.  This  may  be  left  for  reports  from 
individual  observation,  or  it  may  be  observed  by  the  class 
together  in  a  field  trip.  It  will  not  be  difficult  for  the 
children  to  see  that  the  locomotion  is  a  combination  of 
flight  and  hop.  Where  do  they  alight?  Do  they  make 
any  effort  to  hide  ?  How  does  their  color  help  to  conceal 
them? 

Bring  a  few  into  the  schoolroom.  How  do  they  move 
about  in  the  terrarium  or  cage  ?  How  many  legs  have  they  ? 


174    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

How  do  the  hind  legs  differ  from  the  fore  legs  ?  Can  you 
find  anything  on  the  feet  to  keep  the  hopper  from  slipping 
when  he  alights  ?  Where  are  the  wings  you  saw  when  the 
insect  was  flying?  Gently  lift  the  outer  wings  and  note 
the  inner  ones  folded  like  fans  underneath.  What  do 
you  think  is  the  use  of  these  outer  wings  ?  Are  they  any 
stronger  or  firmer  than  the  inner  ones  ? 

Problem. — What  and  how  do  grasshoppers  eat  ? 

Where  did  the  children  find  the  insects?  Was  there 
any  food  there?  Place  leaves  of  various  kinds  in  the  jars 
with  the  hoppers.  Do  not  have  too  many  insects  in  one 
jar.  If  you  have  them  in  a  wire  cage,  place  sprays  of 
grass,  clover,  etc.,  in  a  small  bottle  of  water  and  set  this  in 
the  cage.  How  do  the  hoppers  eat  ?  Let  the  children  find 
this  out  for  themselves,  even  if  it  takes  several  days  for 
them  to  see  the  insects  nibbling  and  chewing  the  leaves. 

Let  the  children  try  an  experiment  to  determine  how 
much  one  hopper  will  eat.  Place  one  of  the  insects  in  a 
jar,  and  with  it  a  half  dozen  fresh  blades  of  grass.  How 
many  blades  are  left  next  morning  ?  Try  it  on  other  plants ; 
clover  leaves,  corn,  etc.  Sprinkle  some  water  on  the 
leaves  and  see  if  the  hoppers  like  to  drink. 

Problem. — How  does  the  grasshopper  find  out  things? 

Can  it  see  you  when  you  come  near?  Can  you  find 
the  eyes?  What  else  do  you  see  on  the  head?  Try  to 
find  out  what  it  does  with  its  horns  or  feelers.  Does  it 
act  as  if  it  can  hear  ?  If  you  raise  the  wings  you  may 
see  the  ear  spots  on  the  back,  one  on  each  side. 

Problem. — (a)  When,  wherey  and  how  do  grasshoppers 
lay  their  eggs  ?  (b)  How  do  young  grasshoppers  differ  from 
the  grown-up  ones  ? 


THE   STUDY  OF   INSECTS  175 


Have  the  children  fill  some  of  the  Mason  jars  about  a 
third  full  of  garden  soil.  Firm  this  down,  and  place  one 
or  two  female  hoppers  in  each  and  feed  them  well.  You 
can  identify  the  females  by  the  four  projections,  the  egg 
placers  or  ovipositors,  at  the  end  of  the  body. 

In  time  the  hoppers  will  dig  holes  in  the  soil  and  place 
their  eggs  in  them.  The  children  may  or  may  not  succeed 
in  catching  the  insects  in  the  act,  but  they  may  dig  up  the 
pods  or  packages  of  eggs.  Have  them  find  out  how  many 
eggs  in  one  package.  Some  grasshoppers  lay  as  many  as 
three  packages.  Where  do  the  grasshoppers  out  of  doors 
put  their  eggs  ?  When  do  they  hatch  ?  Why  is  it  that  we 
do  not  have  more  crops  injured  by  grasshoppers  since  there 
are  so  many  eggs  deposited  ?  Think  of  some  of  the  things 
that  keep  them  in  check;  fall  plowing,  early  spring  plow- 
ing, wet  weather,  which  causes  a  disease,  but,  most  of  all, 
birds.  This  is  a  good  time  to  talk  about  some  of  the  birds 
that  feed  to  a  great  extent  upon  grasshoppers.  Such  are 
the  meadow  lark,  quail,  brown  thrasher,  bobolink,  and 
dick  cissel. 

While  most  of  the  young  grasshoppers  hatch  from  the 
eggs  in  the  spring,  there  are  always  a  few  young  hoppers 
to  be  found  in  the  fall.  Have  the  children  search  for  these, 
and  compare  them  with  the  grown-up  ones.  What  do 
they  lack  that  the  grown-up  ones  have  ?  Are  there  any 
beginnings  of  wings  on  their  backs?  It  may  be  possible 
to  keep  some  of  these  till  they  molt  and  grow  their  wings. 

How  many  different  kinds  of  grasshoppers  can  the 
children  find?  The  little  red-legged,  the  large  dull-green, 
the  dusty-colored  road  hoppers  are  all  plentiful. 

Compare   with   these   the  long-horned    grasshopper. 


176    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

One  of  the  most  common  of  these  is  the  meadow  grass- 
hopper which  sits  up  on  the  stems  of  weeds,  grasses,  and 
corn  and  sings  all  day  long.  Place  a  few  of  these  in  the 
cage  and  let  the  children  find  out  how  they  make  their 
music. 

The  crickets,  also,  make  an  interesting  study  in  this 
connection.  To  find  out  how  they  like  to  place  their 
eggs  in  cracks  and  crevices,  place  a  lamp  chimney  on  a 
flowerpot  full  of  soil.  Let  the  chimney  rest  a  very  short 
distance  in  the  soil.  Place  the  crickets  inside  the  chimney, 
feed  them,  and  in  time  you  will  find  they  have  placed  their 
golden  eggs  in  the  soil  at  the  edge  of  the  chimney. 

Katydids  and  snowy  tree  crickets  may  be  added  to  the 
list  of  interesting  hoppers.  Cockroaches  should  be  studied 
in  this  connection  if  they  are  troublesome  in  any  of  the 
homes. 

Helpful  Books  and  Bulletins:  The  Study  of  Insects, 
Comstock;  American  Insects,  Kellogg;  Farmers'  Bulletins: 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  The  Principal 
Insects  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat,  No.  132;  Principal 
Insects  Enemies  of  the  Grape,  No.  70;  Three  Insects  Ene- 
mies of  Shade  Trees,  No.  99;  The  Honeybee;  How  Insects 
Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts,  No.  155;  The  Principal 
Household  Insects;  The  Peach  Twig  Borer,  No.  80;  The 
Control  of  the  Codling  Moth,  No.  171;  Insecticides  and 
Fungicides,  No.  146;  Annual  Loss  Occasioned  by  De- 
structive Insects. 


CHAPTER   XV 

PLAN   FOR  WEED   STUDY 

WEEDS  may  be  studied  either  in  the  spring  or  fall 
term.  The  study  should  be  emphasized  in  the  fall,  chiefly 
because  many  weeds  are  in  flower  and  fruit  at  this  season. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  in  their  gardens  to  see  how 
many  different  kinds  of  weeds  are  growing  there,  and  to 
bring  two  to  school  the  next  day.  Select  from  those 
brought  in  one  of  the  most  common,  such  as  pigweed.  Ask 
what  characteristics  has  this  weed  that  make  it  so  success- 
ful. Have  some  of  the  children  count  the  seeds  on  one 
small  stem  and  estimate  the  number  of  seeds  on  the  plant. 
What  advantage  is  the  great  number  of  seeds  to  the  plant  ? 
Think  back  to  the  middle  of  summer.  Were  any  of  these 
plants  prominent  in  your  garden  at  that  time  ?  Then  you 
thought  you  had  all  the  weeds  hoed  out.  Now  you  find 
this  tall  plant  with  its  seeds  ripe.  What  does  all  this  mean  ? 
It  means  that  this  weed  makes  a  very  rapid  growth  and 
matures  its  seed  in  a  very  short  time.  Other  advantages 
may  be  pointed  out,  depending  upon  the  weed  under  dis- 
cussion. 

Suggest  to  the  pupils  that  they  try  to  find  out  all  they 
can  about  weeds  in  their  neighborhood  during  the  next 
two  weeks.  Have  them  keep  a  list  of  all  they  find,  and 
what  they  find  out  about  them,  noting  especially  where  the 
plants  are  growing,  and  what  characteristics  they  have  that 

177 


178    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

make  them  successful.  If  possible,  have  them  record 
whether  the  weeds  are  annuals,  biennials,  or  perennials. 
If  these  terms  are  new,  there  is  no  better  place  to  explain 
and  illustrate  this  grouping  of  plants.  Annuals  are  those 
plants  which  grow  from  seed  to  seed  each  year,  and  die 
away  completely  in  the  winter.  Biennials  require  two  years 
to  grow  from  seed  to  seed.  Many  common  weeds  are  both 
annual  and  biennial  in  habit.  Those  plants  which  persist 
from  season  to  season,  indefinitely,  by  rootstock,  or  other- 
wise, are  called  perennials. 

Throw  out  hints  occasionally  that  will  keep  up  the 
interest.  How  many  seeds  are  you  carrying  around  and 
sowing  when  a  burdock  bur  is  fastened  to  your  clothing  ? 
Why  do  you  find  some  burdock  plants  growing  in  a  green 
rosette  close  to  the  ground,  while  others  have  tall  stems 
with  small  leaves  and  many  burs  ?  What  other  weeds  do 
you  find  that  show  these  same  characteristics?  Thistle, 
wild  parsnip,  wild  carrot,  and  mullein  are  familiar  examples 
of  biennials. 

Who  knows  how  many  seeds  in  one  cocklebur?  If 
some  of  you  find  milkweed  growing  in  a  cornfield,  dig 
down  and  see  if  you  can  discover  the  secret  as  to  why  this 
weed  is  hard  to  kill  out  when  it  gets  a  start.  Try  the  wild 
morning-glory  in  the  same  way.  Why  are  dandelions  and 
plantain  successful  lawn  weeds? 

It  will  add  much  to  the  interest  of  weed  study  to  have 
the  children  make  a  collection  of  weed  seeds;  also  of  the 
stems  and  leaves,  where  it  is  not  practicable  to  bring  in  an 
entire  plant.  The  latter  may  be  pressed  and  mounted. 
The  seeds  may  be  placed  in  envelopes  or  bottles.  Small 
vials  may  be  purchased  at  little  expense,  or  brought  from 


PLAN  FOR  WEED  STUDY  179 

• 

home.  The  value  of  such  a  collection  lies  not  so  much  in 
the  collection  itself  as  what  the  children  gain  in  its  making. 
When  the  bottles  are  all  in,  have  the  children  group  them 
according  to  places  in  which  the  weeds  grow,  as  garden, 
field,  lawn,  vacant  lot,  and  roadside  weeds.  The  seed  may 
also  be  grouped  into  annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials. 

At  the  end  of  the  two  weeks  have  reports  made  by  the 
children  as  to  the  weeds  they  have  found,  and  what  they 
know  about  them.  If  the  interest  has  been  kept  up,  the 
children  will  ask  all  sorts  of  intelligent  questions.  Follow 
this  with  a  discussion  of  why  we  consider  weeds  a  nuisance, 
or  why  they  are  detrimental  to  field  and  garden  crops. 
The  discussion  will  probably  bring  out  the  facts  that  the 
weeds  shade  some  of  the  young  plants;  that  they  rob  the 
plants  of  moisture  and  sometimes  of  plant  foods;  that  many 
of  them  are  coarse,  homely  plants  that  we  do  not  wish  to 
have  around;  that  weeds  with  burs  are  exceedingly  an- 
noying to  animals,  etc.  Now  ask  the  children  to  think  of 
all  the  various  means  used  to  get  rid  of  the  weeds.  Bring 
this  up  for  discussion  another  day,  and  at  the  same  time 
give  the  older  children  some  problems  to  think  out. 
Which  are  easier  to  get  rid  of,  annuals  or  perennials? 
Why  do  you  find  chiefly  annuals  in  the  gardens  and  peren- 
nials in  the  lawn  and  pastures?  Why  can  some  weeds 
stand  drought  better  than  others? 

In  the  spring  many  interesting  experiments  may  be 
worked  out  with  weed  seeds.  Use  some  of  those  collected 
in  the  fall.  Have  the  children  arrange  a  number  of  tin 
cans  with  drains  and  fill  with  good  garden  soil.  Plant  a 
few  seeds  in  each.  Keep  a  record  of  number  planted  and 
date  of  appearance  above  the  ground.  Note  rapidity  of 


180    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

growth.  Do  all  the  seeds  germinate  at  the  same  time? 
After  two  or  three  weeks,  pull  up  some  of  the  weeds,  such 
as  pigweeds  and  purslane.  Do  others  now  germinate  and 
grow  ?  Plant  some  cocklebur  seeds  that  have  been  kept 
in  the  house  all  winter  and  some  that  have  been  left  out 
of  doors.  Note  results. 

List  of  Some  Common  Weeds 

Garden:  Pigweed,  amaranth,  or  careless  weed  *;  purslane  *; 
foxtail  grass  x;  crab  grass  l;  smart  weed  *;  horse  weed  or  colt's 
tail  *;  lamb's  quarter  *;  spotted  spurge.1 

Field:  Mustard  *;  cocklebur  *;  Russian  thistle *;  tumble 
weed  x;  butter  print  or  velvet  leaf  *;  shepherd's  purse;  milk- 
weed 3;  wild  morning-glory3;  bindweed  or  wild  buckwheat1; 
Canada  thistle3;  corn  cockle2;  ragweed1;  wild  lettuce  or 
prickly  lettuce  *;  wild  oats  x;  pigeon  weed  or  corn  gromwell x; 
sorrel  or  sour  weed  3;  fleabane  3;  quack  grass.3 

Meadow:  Pasture  and  lawns;  wild  carrot  2;  wild  parsnip  2; 
sow-thistle  2;  foxeye  daisy;  yellow  or  bitter  dock  3;  iron  weed  3; 
plantain  3;  dandelion  3;  mullein.2 

Waste  lands  and  roadsides:  Burdock  2;  dog  fennel *;  Spanish 
needles  *;  giant  ragweed  1;  jimson  weed  *;  button  weed.2 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them, 
No.  28;  Weeds  Used  in  Medicine,  No.  188. 

1  Annuals.     '  Biennials.     3  Perennials. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

STUDY  OF  WEATHER 

NOTHING  in  nature  is  more  closely  related  to  our 
lives  than  weather  and  weather  phenomena.  For  this 
reason  some  time  should  be  spent  in  making  weather 
observations,  drawing  conclusions,  and  noting  effects  of 
weather  on  plant  and  animal  life. 

To  bring  about  the  best  results,  the  study  should  be 
continued  through  several  months.  The  work  may  well 
begin  in  September  and  be  conducted  as  a  general  exercise, 
but  the  seventh-grade  pupils  should  be  responsible  for 
seeing  that  the  observations  are  recorded. 

Start  the  work  by  asking  the  pupils  what  the  term 
weather  means  to  them.  The  discussion  will  no  doubt 
bring  out  ideas  of  heat,  rain,  drought,  snow,  cold,  clouds, 
winds,  storms. 

In  many  localities  September  is  one  of  the  driest 
months  in  the  year.  This  being  the  case,  make  the  first 
observation  in  connection  with  drought.  Start  with  the 
problem,  what  is  the  effect  of  dry  weather  on  plant  life? 
Ask  the  children  to  look  at  the  plants  in  the  garden. 
What  plants  are  best  able  to  stand  dry  weather  ?  Which 
ones  are  least  able  to  stand  it  ?  Observe  the  plants  in  the 
lawn,  in  pastures,  cornfields,  oats  stubble,  meadows,  and 
roadside.  Why  are  some  of  these  plants  able  to  keep 
green  and  vigorous  while  others  are  dry  and  withered  ? 

181 


182 


NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 


It  will,  of  course,  be  impossible  for  the  children  to  find 
out  for  themselves  all  of  the  characteristics  that  help  plants 
to  withstand  drought;  but  they  will  be  able  to  discover 
some  of  the  things.  Dig  down  to  find  what  kind  of  roots 
the  plants  have  that  look  the  freshest,  such  as  clover  and 
dandelion.  Compare  these  with  the  roots  of  some  that 
are  the  most  withered.  Examine  the  leaves.  Do  you 
find  any  with  hairy  or  woolly  structures  that  might  protect 
them  from  the  heat  ? 

Very  early  in  the  term  begin  keeping  a  record  of  daily 
observations  of  weather  conditions.  If  there  is  not  enough 
blackboard  to  reserve  a  permanent  space  for  the  record, 
procure  a  sheet  of  brown  manila  paper  or  bristol  board 
and  make  a  chart  by  ruling  off  a  table  like  that  indicated 
below.  At  the  beginning  of  each  week,  appoint  two  of 
the  seventh-grade  pupils  to  see  that  the  record  is  put  in 
each  day.  If  the  work  is  not  conducted  as  a  general  ex- 
ercise for  the  entire  school,  then  the  seventh-grade  pupils 
may  keep  their  own  records  in  notebooks. 


WEATHER  RECORD 


Date. 

Hour. 

Temper- 
ature. 

Wind 
Direc- 
tion. 

Veloc- 
ity. 

Sky. 

Precipita- 
tion or 
rainfall. 

Remarks. 

Sept.  15 

9A.M. 

Warm, 

Light 

Partly 

Heavy  thunder 

65° 

cloudy 

shower  this  P.M. 

These  observations  may  be  taken  without  instruments. 
However,  if  the  school  has  a  thermometer,  then  the  tem- 
perature should  be  recorded  in  degrees.  For  tempera- 


STUDY   OF  WEATHER  183 

are  the  terms  warm,  hot,  very  hot,  cool,  cold,  very  cold, 
and  chilly  may  be  used.  The  direction  of  the  wind 
may  be  indicated  by  an  arrow.  An  arrow  pointing 
toward  the  top  of  the  chart  indicates  a  wind  which  is 
traveling  north.  Is  a  wind  named  from  the  direction 
it  is  going,  or  the  direction  from  which  it  is  coming? 
What  is  meant  by  velocity  of  the  wind?  The  follow- 
ing terms  are  in  use  by  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau:  calm,  when  there  is  no  perceptible  wind;  light, 
just  moving  branches;  brisk,  swaying  branches;  high, 
swaying  whole  trees. 

Under  sky,  record  whether  it  is  clear,  partly  cloudy, 
or  overcast. 

Precipitation  means  falling  weather  of  any  sort,  rain, 
sleet,  snow,  etc.  Under  remarks,  record  any  item  of 
interest  that  does  not  appear  under  the  other  headings. 
Thus,  for  September  isth,  a  heavy  shower  this  afternoon, 
or,  for  September  i6th,  a  slight  frost  last  night. 

At  the  end  of  each  month  have  the  pupils  make  a  short 
summary  derived  from  their  observations.  How  many 
fair  days?  How  many  cloudy?  How  many  in  which 
there  was  precipitation  ?  What  was  the  general  direction 
of  the  wind  for  the  month  ?  What  was  the  direction  of  the 
wind  when  the  temperature  was  warmest?  When  the 
temperature  was  coldest?  From  what  direction  did  the 
rain  come?  From  what  direction  did  the  snow  come? 
What  was  the  direction  of  the  wind  during  the  cloudy 
weather?,  etc. 

Have  them  note  other  relations.  Is  a  cloudy  night 
warmer  or  colder  than  a  clear  night?  You  often  hear 

people  say  in  the  early  fall :  "If  it  clears  it  will  freeze  to- 
13 


184          NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

night."  Can  you  see  why  this  is  true?  After  you  have 
studied  radiant  heat,  you  will  understand  better  how 
the  clouds  act  as  a  screen  to  keep  the  heat  close  to 
the  earth.  Which  seems  colder,  a  windy  day  or  a  calm 
one  ?  Why  ? 

After  the  first  hard  frost  ask  the  children  to  note  the 
effect  it  has  had  upon  plant  life.  If  there  are  some  plants 
near  the  schoolhouse  that  show  the  effects  well,  make  a 
study  of  these,  or,  if  that  is  impracticable,  bring  into  the 
schoolroom  a  few  that  are  badly  nipped  and  some  that  are 
not  hurt  and  call  attention  to  the  difference.  Have  the 
children  report  on  the  garden  plants  that  can  stand  the 
frost  best,  and  those  that  are  easily  killed.  Continue  this 
observation  at  intervals  during  the  fall  and  winter.  Are 
there  any  plants  that  remain  green  over  winter?  Note 
clover,  blue  grass,  thistle,  dandelion,  mullein.  The  last 
named  makes  a  most  interesting  winter  study.  Observe 
how  wonderfully  the  leaves  are  protected. 

What  is  the  effect  of  cold  weather  on  insect  life  ?  Do 
the  grasshoppers  continue  to  live?  Keep  eyes  open  for 
living  insects.  Some  time  you  may  find  in  the  middle  of 
winter  a  house  fly,  a  cricket,  or  even  a  tiger  caterpillar  that 
have  crept  out  of  their  winter  quarters  too  soon. 

Spend  a  little  time  discussing  what  effect  the  weather 
has  on  ourselves;  effect  of  cloudy  weather,  fair,  cold,  hot, 
etc.  Have  the  children  think  of  all  the  different  things 
we  do  to  protect  ourselves  from  the  weather,  such  as  the 
preparation  of  shelter,  houses,  clothing,  the  making  of 
fires,  etc. 

The  seventh-grade  pupils  may  well  learn  something  of 
the  work  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  with  a  study  of  weather 


STUDY  OF  WEATHER  185 

maps.  These  will  be  sent  to  any  teacher  who  will  use 
them.  Apply  to  the  Weather  Bureau  office  at  your  state 
capital. 

Helpful  books:  Weather,  Barber;  Practical  Exercises  in 
Meteorology,  Ward. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

BULB   GARDENING 

EVERY  rural  and  village  school  may  have  a  bulb  garden, 
even  though  a  small  one.  One  of  the  first  things  to  consider 
is  the  kind  of  bulbs  to  plant.  Tulips  are  perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory  if  we  are  to  have  but  one  kind.  Narcissuses, 
crocuses,  and  hyacinths  are  good  also  and  easily  grown. 

The  next  question  to  settle  is,  where  shall  the  bulbs  be 
planted  ?  If  there  is  a  walk  leading  from  the  schoolhouse 
door  to  the  road,  then  a  long  bed  not  more  than  two  feet 
wide  may  be  made  on  each  side  of  this  walk.  If  the  coal 
shed  stands  in  a  suitable  place  a  bed  may  be  made  at  the 
side  or  end  of  it.  If  there  are  shrubs  on  the  grounds, 
nothing  is  prettier  than  a  bed  of  tulips,  crocuses,  or  hya- 
cinths blossoming  with  these  as  a  background. 

An  indoor  lesson  on  bulbs  should  precede  the  planting. 
If  you  have  several  kinds,  compare  them  as  to  size  and 
shape.  What  is  a  bulb?  Look  closely  at  a  tulip.  It 
resembles  an  onion.  If  we  should  cut  it  open  we  should 
find  that  it  is  like  an  onion  on  the  inside,  made  up  of  layers. 
Can  you  tell  which  end  will  produce  roots?  What  will 
grow  from  the  other  end?  The  bulb  is  really  an  under- 
ground stem.  Do  you  find  any  little  bulbs  (bulblets) 
fastened  to  the  large  ones  ?  This  is  the  way  new  bulbs  are 
formed.  If  these  bulblets  are  set  out  they  will  not  blossom 
for  two  years. 

186 


BULB   GARDENING  187 

The  bulbs  like  rich,  mellow  soil.  If  you  have  a  heavy 
clay  soil,  have  some  of  the  older  pupils  suggest  how  it  may 
be  made  more  mellow;  by  mixing  with  it  some  humus 
(decayed  vegetable  matter).  Nothing  is  better  than  well- 
rotted  material  from  around  the  barn.  Some  farmer  who 
is  interested  will  haul  you  a  little  of  this  fertilizer  some  day 
when  he  is  going  past  the  schoolhouse.  Let  the  pupils 
prepare  the  bed.  Throw  out  the  top  soil  to  the  depth  of 
six  or  eight  inches.  Put  the  fertilizer  in  to  the  depth  of 
two  inches  and  spade  this  into  the  soil.  Now  throw  back 
not  quite  half  of  the  top  soil.  Set  the  bulbs  firmly  in  this, 
about  eight  inches  apart.  Let  every  child  plant  at  least 
one  bulb.  Now  throw  in  the  rest  of  the  soil.  The  bulbs 
should  be  covered  with  four  to  six  inches  of  soil.  Another 
way  to  plant  the  bulbs  is  to  prepare  the  bed  by  digging, 
putting  in  fertilizers,  and  raking  till  it  is  in  good  con- 
dition. Cut  off  about  nine  inches  from  the  upper  part 
of  an  old  spade  handle,  and  sharpen  this  or  sharpen  any 
round  stick.  You  now  have  an  instrument  with  which 
you  can  make  holes  in  the  bed.  Into  these  holes  drop  the 
bulbs  and  cover  with  soil. 

What  do  you  expect  the  bulbs  to  do  this  fall  ?  Where 
is  the  ground  warmer  this  time  of  year,  six  inches  below 
the  surface  or  near  the  top  ?  Which  part  of  the  plant  will 
be  likely  to  grow  ?  What  we  want  the  plant  to  do  is  to 
make  a  good  root  growth  this  fall.  Why  do  we  not  want 
the  upper  part  of  the  bulb  to  grow  until  spring  ?  We  want 
the  roots  to  get  a  good  start,  for  only  the  bulbs  with  good 
roots  will  produce  good  flowers. 

When  the  top  layer  of  soil  is  frozen  hard,  then  we  must 
cover  up  our  bulb  beds.  Straw,  leaves,  or  cornstalks  may 


1 88          NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

be  used  for  this.  It  should  be  four  to  six  inches  deep. 
What  is  this  done  for  ?  It  is  to  keep  the  temperature  even, 
so  the  ground  will  not  thaw  out  and  freeze  again  when  the 
weather  changes.  In  early  spring,  will  the  ground  under 
the  straw  thaw  out  as  soon  as  uncovered  soil  ?  Will  this 
keep  the  plants  from  starting  to  grow  early  in  the  spring  ? 
This  is  what  we  want.  If  they  were  left  uncovered  the  first 
warm  weather  would  start  the  plants  to  growing  so  rapidly 
that  they  would  be  likely  to  get  nipped  by  the  later  frosts. 

The  cover  should  be  taken  off  gradually  early  in  April. 
It  should  all  be  off  before  the  shoot  appears  above  the 
ground.  When  does  the  first  bud  appear?  Watch  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  shoot.  How  many  leaves 
has  it?  How  do  they  unfold?  Where  does  the  flower 
stem  appear  ?  How  long  after  the  bud  appears  above  the 
ground  until  the  plant  is  in  flower  ? 

When  the  leaves  begin  to  die,  the  bulbs  may  be  dug  up 
and  kept  in  a  dry  place  for  the  summer.  If  you  wish  to 
make  a  permanent  bed  plant  the  bulbs  an  inch  or  two 
deeper.  When  the  leaves  begin  to  die,  cut  them  off. 
Seeds  of  annuals  may  now  be  planted  in  the  bed  without 
injuring  the  bulb  in  any  way. 

If  the  making  of  bulb  gardens  does  not  seem  practicable, 
the  growing  of  bulbs  need  not  be  given  up  altogether. 
They  may  be  planted  in  pots  or  cans  and  made  to  bloom 
in  the  house  any  time  during  the  winter  or  early  spring. 
Even  if  bulbs  are  planted  out  of  doors,  every  school  should 
try  to  force  a  few  bulbs  for  winter  blooming. 

Tulips,  hyacinths,  and  narcissuses  are  all  good  bulbs 
for  forcing.  The  bulbs  should  be  planted  the  latter  part 
of  October  or  early  in  November.  Prepare  the  soil  as  you 


BULB   GARDENING  189 

would  for  transplanting  cuttings.  Place  drains  in  the  pots 
or  cans.  Fill  the  pot  a  little  over  half  full  of  soil  and  set 
in  the  bulb.  Now  put  in  more  soil  till  the  top  is  just  below 
the  surface.  If  you  have  a  large  pot  or  tin  pail  several 
bulbs  may  be  planted  together.  After  planting,  water  till 
you  are  certain  that  all  the  soil  is  thoroughly  moistened. 

[What  do  you  want  these  bulbs  to  do  first?  Just  what 
they  do  in  the  outdoor  beds,  grow  roots.  In  order  to 
make  them  do  this  we  must  put  them  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
We  call  this  forcing  the  roots.  The  pots  may  be  placed 
in  a  cool  cellar  and  covered  up  with  a  heavy  box  or  other 
object.  They  may  be  placed  in  a  shallow  hole  in  the 
ground  and  covered  with  about  three  inches  of  soil.  In 
this  case  a  thick  covering  of  straw  or  leaves  will  prevent  the 
freezing  of  the  soil  so  the  pots  may  be  easily  removed  in 
the  middle  of  winter.  They  may  be  set  on  the  ground 
along  the  north  side  of  the  coal  shed  or  other  buildings  and 
covered  up  with  ashes.  They  should  be  left  in  this  cool 
place  at  least  six  weeks.  They  may  be  left  much  longer 
and  brought  in  one  or  two  at  a  time  as  desired. 

When  you  bring  them  in  carefully  remove  one  from 
the  soil  so  the  children  may  see  what  has  taken  place. 
From  what  points  did  the  roots  start?  Are  there  many 
roots  ?  What  is  the  length  of  the  longest  ones  ?  Has  the 
shoot  started  to  grow?  What  color  is  it?  Could  the 
roots  and  shoot  grow  without  food  ?  Where  did  they  get 
the  food  to  live  on  ?  A  little  discussion  will  bring  out  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  food  stored  up  in  the  thick  bulb  was 
used  for  this  growth. 

At  first  the  pots  should  be  kept  in  the  coolest  part  of 
the  room  and  covered  from  the  intense  light.  If  the  school- 


190         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

room  has  an  entry  or  hall  that  is  not  kept  as  warm  as  the 
main  room,  this  will  be  a  good  place  to  keep  the  plants  for 
several  days.  After  this  bring  them  into  the  room  where 
they  may  have  plenty  of  light  and  heat,  and  where  the 
development  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  may  be  watched. 

The  Chinese  sacred  lily  or  the  paper-white  narcissus 
bulb  may  be  grown  without  forcing  the  roots,  and  without 
soil.  These  are  excellent  bulbs  for  schoolroom  study. 
Fill  a  dish  with  small  stones  and  support  the  bulbs  in  these. 
Keep  the  dish  full  of  water.  The  bulbs  will  develop  and 
open  up  their  beautiful  blossoms  in  about  six  weeks. 

Have  the  children  watch  the  development  of  the  roots 
and  their  growth  among  the  stones.  Which  start  first,  the 
roots  or  the  leaves?  Watch  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves. 
How  many  from  one  bulb  ?  How  rapidly  do  they  lengthen  ? 
Where  are  the  flower  buds  situated  ?  Watch  the  stretching 
up  of  the  flower  stems  and  the  unfolding  of  the  flower  buds. 
How  many  flowers  on  one  stem?  Do  all  open  at  one 
time?  How  long  do  they  stay  in  flower?  Feel  the  bulb 
after  the  plant  has  been  in  flower  some  time.  Does  it  feel 
as  solid  as  when  you  planted  it  ?  Why  ?  Allow  the  plant 
to  stand  till  the  leaves  begin  to  die.  Now  feel  the  bulb. 
Has  it  become  solid  again  ?  It  has  been  storing  up  more 
food  for  the  new  plant  next  year. 

Encourage  the  children  to  force  bulbs  at  home  for 
winter  and  early  spring  blooming. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

STUDY   OF   WILD   FLOWERS 

FLOWERS  appeal  to  children  more  than  some  other 
forms  of  nature.  Sometimes  we  feel  that  they  do  not 
always  appeal  in  the  best  way.  Often  there  seems  to  be 
a  desire  on  the  part  of  children  to  pluck  every  flower  in 
sight,  carry  it  about  a  short  time,  and  then  throw  it  down 
to  wither  with  its  fellows. 

The  special  purpose  of  this  work  should  be  to  lead  the 
children  not  only  to  appreciate  more  fully  the  beauty  of 
the  wild  flowers,  but  to  enjoy  seeing  them  as  they  appear 
in  their  natural  surroundings.  This  does  not  mean  that 
no  wild  flowers  should  be  gathered  by  the  children.  The 
gathering  of  flowers  and  placing  them  in  glasses  of  water 
in  the  schoolroom  or  house  is  certainly  one  of  the  pleasures 
that  should  not  *be  denied.  But  the  feeling  that  every 
blossom  must  be  plucked  and  perhaps  torn  to  pieces  before 
it  can  be  appreciated  should  be  repressed. 

Nothing  is  so  likely  to  bring  about  this  attitude  of 
mind  toward  the  flowers  as  to  make  a  study  of  them  in  their 
natural  haunts,  with  observations  of  their  development 
from  bud  to  seed. 

If  a  school  building  is  situated  near  the  woods,  the 
wild- flower  study  should  be  emphasized  in  the  spring;  if 
in  a  prairie  region,  then  the  emphasis  should  be  placed  on 
the  autumn  flowers.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that 

191 


192    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

children  of  all  schools  remote  from  woodland  should  have 
no  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  woodland 
blossoms.  If  woods  are  within  six  or  eight  miles  of  the 
district,  somebody  may  make  a  Saturday  trip  and  bring 
into  the  schoolroom  specimens  of  a  few  common  spring 
flowers. 

The  general  problem  to  solve  in  connection  with  spring- 
flower  study  is,  How  do  these  plants  manage  to  open  up 
their  flowers  and  leaves  so  early? 

Have  the  children  watch  for  the  earliest  spring  flower. 
In  most  localities  this  is  the  hepatica,  that  blossoms 
almost  before  the  last  snow  has  melted.  It  bears  a  delicate 
blue,  pink,  or  almost  white  flower  with  a  fuzzy  stem. 
Have  the  children  note  where  the  hepaticas  are  to  be 
found.  Do  they  seem  to  like  hillside  slopes,  or  flat,  level 
situations  ?  Are  there  any  leaves  on  the  plant  ?  Are  they 
this  year's  or  last  year's  leaves?  Where  are  the  flower 
stems  attached  to  the  plant,  in  the  middle  or  around  the 
edges?  Look  carefully  down  among  the  old  leaves  near 
the  ground.  What  do  you  find?  What  are  the  buds 
covered  with  ?  Is  there  any  advantage  in  this  thick,  fuzzy 
covering  ? 

When  do  the  first  leaves  appear?  Are  there  any 
flowers  left  at  this  time  ?  Notice  the  leaves  that  come  out 
later.  Have  they  as  thick  a  coat  of  fuzz  as  the  early  ones  ? 
What  do  you  find  now  in* place  of  the  flowers?  Does  one 
flower  produce  more  than  one  seed  ?  How  many  ?  When 
are  the  seeds  ripe  ?  How  are  the  seeds  scattered  ? 

Does  the  plant  die  after  it  has  matured  its  seeds? 
Mark  several  plants  in  the  woods  by  placing  a  stake  near 
them,  and,  if  possible,  continue  the  observation  in  the  fall, 


STUDY  OF  WILD  FLOWERS  193 

or,  if  preferred,  the  work  may  begin  in  the  fall.  Is  the 
plant  still  alive  ?  Are  any  seeds  left  on  it  ?  The  plant  has 
sown  the  seeds  chiefly  by  aid  of  the  wind.  Bend  down  the 
leaves  and  look  carefully  in  the  center  of  the  plant  close  to 
the  ground.  Can  you  find  any  preparation  for  the  early 
spring  blossoming  ?  All  summer  the  plant  has  been  getting 
ready  for  the  early  awakening  next  year.  Its  buds  are  all 
formed  and  packed  away  in  the  furlike  covering.  Note 
how  late  in  the  season  the  leaves  remain  green.  Is  this 
a  hardy  or  tender  plant? 

Hepaticas  and  other  spring  flowers  may  be  easily  trans- 
ferred to  the  schoolroom  for  study.  Dig  up  the  soil  at 
some  distance  around  and  under  them  so  the  roots  will 
not  be  disturbed  in  the  least.  Set  them  in  a  dish  or  pan 
with  a  little  additional  soil.  Keep  them  moist  and  you  will 
be  able  to  preserve  them  in  good  condition  for  several 
weeks.  When  you  are  through  with  the  study,  what  will 
you  do  with  them?  One  thing  be  sure  not  to  do,  and  that 
is  to  let  them  wither  and  die  on  your  hands.  Why  not 
start  a  wild-flower  garden  in  a  corner  of  the  school  yard? 
If  you  have  shrubs  in  the  yard,  place  the  plants  near  these. 
If  it  does  not  seem  practicable  to  start  a  wild-flower  garden 
on  the  school  grounds,  suggest  to  the  children  that  they  take 
the  plants  and  set  them  out  at  home.  Many  of  the  children 
will  be  delighted  to  start  a  wild-flower  garden  of  their  own. 
Try  to  have  them  imitate,  so  far  as  possible,  the  natural 
conditions  in  which  the  plants  grow,  especially  as  regards 
shade  and  moisture. 

Watch  for  the  succession  of  spring  flowers.  The  blood 
root,  with  its  kidney-shaped  leaves  and  pure  white  flower, 
is  an  excellent  specimen  to  study  in  order  to  see  how  the 


1 94         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

buds  come  up  and  gradually  unfold.  The  spring  beauty 
is  as  good  a  type  as  the  hepatica  with  which  to  follow  the 
development  through  the  entire  term.  The  same  outline 
may  be  used  for  this,  varying  a  little  to  fit  the  characteristics 
of  the  plant.  Place  a  few  of  the  spring  beauties  in  a  glass 
of  water  in  the  sunshine.  After  a  time,  remove  them  to  a 
dark  corner  or  turn  a  box  over  them  to  cut  off  the  light. 
What  do  they  do?  Have  the  children  who  have  any  of 
these  growing  near  their  homes  watch  them  as  night  ap- 
proaches. Can  they  find  other  flowers  that  close  at  night  ? 
Dig  up  a  spring  beauty.  Be  sure  that  you  get  all  that  is  in 
the  ground.  You  may  have  to  go  down  four  or  five  inches. 
What  do  you  find  at  the  end  ?  This  tuber  which  is  like  a 
small  potato  has  in  it  stored-up  food.  What  is  the  use  of 
the  food?  What  two  things  do  these  plants  do  every 
summer  to  get  ready  for  the  next  year  ?  Make  buds  and 
store  food. 

The  violet  is  a  good  plant  to  study  for  the  thick  root- 
stock  which  contains  food,  so  is  the  trillium,  the  mandrake, 
or  May  apple.  The  dog  tooth  violet  and  adder's  tongue 
have  interesting  bulbs  from  which  they  send  up  their  pretty 
mottled  leaves.  Other  common  spring  plants  worth 
knowing  are  shooting  star,  buttercups,  wild  geranium, 
anemone,  Jack-5n-the-pulpit,  bellwort,  Solomon's  seal, 
blue  bells,  Dutchman's  breeches,  and  toothwort. 

The  autumn  flowers  are  not,  as  a  rule,  so  attractive  to 
children  as  the  spring  flowers.  However,  they  are  worth 
studying,  and,  like  many  other  things,  the  better  they  are 
known  the  more  attractive  they  become. 

In  many  prairie  localities  where  the  ground  is  all  under 
cultivation,  only  a  few  remnants  of  the  fall  flowers  are  to 


STUDY  OF  WILD  FLOWERS  195 

be  found.  These  are  located  mostly  in  corners  of  fields, 
along  roadside  and  ditches,  and  in  swampy  places.  The 
most  common  of  these  are  the  purple  and  white  asters,  the 
wild  sunflower,  rosin  weeds,  blazing  star,  butterfly  weed, 
black-eyed  Susans,  and  golden-rods. 

How  do  the  fall  flowers  differ  from  the  spring  as  to 
height?  As  to  size  of  leaves,  number  of  leaves?  What 
are  the  prevailing  colors  of  fall  flowers  ? 

A  study  of  the  cultivated  sunflower  of  the  garden  may 
well  precede  the  study  of  the  autumn  flowers.  Is  the  sun- 
flower one  flower  or  a  cluster  ?  It  is  easy  to  see  that  it  is 
composed  of  numerous  small  flowers  grouped  to  form  a 
flat  head.  Are  all  the  flowers  the  same  shape?  Those 
on  the  outside  with  the  yellow  strap  are  called  ray  flowers. 
Those  smaller  ones  with  little  tubular  corollas  are  called 
disk  flowers.  Can  you  find  stamens  and  a  pistil  in  one 
tiny  flower?  Compare  a  wild  sunflower  with  a  garden 
one.  Has  it  the  same  kind  of  flowers  ?  The  rosin  weed  ? 
Black-eyed  Susan? 

The  golden-rod  may  be  studied  in  detail.  Where  is 
this  plant  found  growing?  How  tall  is  it?  How  are  the 
leaves  arranged  on  the  stem?  Are  there  many  or  few 
leaves  ?  Are  the  leaves  soft  or  rough  ?  Examine  leaves 
of  other  autumn  plants  for  this  quality.  Does  the  stem 
branch  ?  Where  are  the  flowers  ?  Has  this  plant  a  head  of 
small  flowers  like  the  sunflower  ?  Are  the  heads  clustered  ? 
By  looking  closely,  the  children  will  see  that  the  spray  of 
golden-rod  is  made  up  of  small,  loose  heads  and  that  each 
of  these  is  made  up  of  very  tiny  florets.  Note  how  very 
small  the  single  flowers  are. 

Notice  the  plant  when  the  flowers  have  faded.     What 


196         NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

has  taken  the  place  of  the  flowers  ?  What  is  the  use  of  this 
feathery  mass?  Can  you  find  one  seed  with  the  tuft  of 
hairs  or  plume  attached  to  it?  How  late  do  the  seeds 
remain  on  the  plant?  Does  the  entire  plant  die  in  the 
fall?  The  pupils  will  not  be  able  to  answer  this  from 
present  observation,  but  they  may  from  past  experience. 
Have  they  noticed  whether  the  golden-rod  appears  in  the 
same  spot  year  after  year  ?  While  they  die  down  to  the 
ground  every  winter,  the  underground  part  remains  alive 
for  many  years.  Is  there  more  than  one  species  of  golden- 
rod  in  the  district? 

Make  a  comparative  study  of  the  asters.  Much  of  the 
observation  for  these  studies  may  be  made  as  the  children 
are  on  their  way  to  and  from  school. 

Helpful  Books:  How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers,  Dana; 
Field  Book  of  American  Wild  Flowers,  Mathews;  Flowers 
of  Field,  Hill,  and  Swamp,  Creevey. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

LIFE   IN   WATER 

No  phase  of  nature  work  affords  more  real  enjoyment 
as  well  as  profit  than  a  study  of  the  various  forms  of  life 
found  in  water.  The  nearness  of  the  schoolhouse  to  a 
pond  or  stream  must  determine  largely  how  much  time 
may  be  spent  in  leading  the  children  to  form  the  acquaint- 
ance of  aquatic  plants  and  animals. 

If  water  is  near  by,  then  the  bulk  of  the  observation 
should  be  made  out  of  doors.  Note  what  plants  are  grow- 
ing near  the  pond  or  stream.  Are  there  any  plants  grow- 
ing in  the  water  ?  Study  some  special  one.  Are  the  stems 
thick  or  thin  ?  The  leaves  large  or  small  ?  Do  the  plants 
stand  up  straight  ?  Are  they  stiff  enough  to  stand  upright 
when  you  take  them  out  of  the  water?  Are  the  roots 
anchored  in  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  pond  ?  Do  you 
find  any  plants  floating  in  the  water  ? 

You  may  find  a  tiny  plant  with  roundish  leaves  and  a 
few  roots  dangling  from  beneath.  This  is  the  duckweed. 
Sometimes  there  are  so  many  of  these  growing  that  they 
completely  cover  large  areas  of  the  pond.  You  will  find, 
also,  long  green  strings  of  algae  or  pond  scum.  These 
interesting  plants  have  neither  leaves  nor  roots. 

Do  you  see  any  animals  in  the  water  ?  You  may  find 
the  water  striders  or  skaters,  slender  bugs  with  very  long 
legs,  that  skim  orver  the  water  as  easily  as  boys  and  girls 

197 


198    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

slide  on  ice.  On  the  surface  you  may  find,  also,  the  shiny 
black  whirligig  beetles.  These  whirl  round  and  round, 
sometimes  a  large  number  of  them  together.  You  wonder 
how  they  keep  from  bumping  into  one  another  every 
minute  as  they  circle  around.  Have  the  children  keep 
very. quiet  as  they  look  down  into  the  water  for  animals. 
They  may  find  a  few  fish  or  frogs.  Among  the  insects 
they  may  see  the  interesting  water  boatmen,  and  the  more 
interesting  back  swimmers  that  glide  around  in  the  water 
always  with  their  backs  downward.  They  may  catch  a 
glimpse  of  the  giant  water  bugs  and  the  large  black  water 
beetles.  They  will,  without  doubt,  see  the  dragon  and 
damsel  flies  hovering  over  the  water  and  settling  down  novv 
and  then  upon  a  reed  or  grass  stem. 

Have  the  children  watch  to  see  what  all  these  little 
creatures  are  doing.  Call  for  occasional  reports  on  what 
they  have  seen  going  on  in  and  about  the  water. 

If  water  is  not  near  enough  to  admit  of  the  outdoor 
observations,  then  arrange  an  aquarium  or  several  aquaria 
in  the  schoolroom,  where  the  habits  and  activities  of  the 
water  animals  may  be  studied.  Indeed,  an  aquarium  is  a 
great  aid  to  detailed  study  even  when  the  out-of-door  ob- 
servation may  be  made.  At  the  same  time  nothing  affords 
the  children  more  genuine  pleasure. 

An  aquarium  may  be  made  with  little  expense.  Hodge, 
in  Nature  Study  and  Life,  gives  directions  for  making 
a  cheap,  substantial  aquarium,  somewhat  as  follows: 
Decide  on  the  size  aquarium  you  want.  It  is  not  best  to 
make  a  very  large  one.  Better  have  two  small  ones  than 
one  large  one.  One  ten  inches  long,  eight  inches  high, 
and  five  wide  is  a  fair  size  for  the  ordinary  schoolroom. 


LIFE  IN  WATER  199 

For  this  you  will  need  two  pieces  of  glass  for  the  sides 
10  X  8  inches,  two  for  the  ends  8X5,  and  the  bottom  one 
10  X  5.  Go  to  a  tinner  and  have  him  make  you  a  frame 
out  of  angle  tin  to  fit  the  glass  plates. 

Make  aquarium  cement  by  using  eight  parts  by  weight 
of  dry  putty,  one  part  red  lead,  and  one  part  litharge. 
Mix  as  wanted  for  use  with  pure  raw  linseed  oil  to  the 
consistency  of  stiff  putty.  To  set  the  glass,  first  put  on  the 
cement  evenly  all  around  the  bottom  of  the  frame,  and 
then  press  the  glass  into  place.  Put  in  the  sides  and  ends 
in  the  same  way.  Carefully  put  a  few  very  limber,  green 
twigs  into  the  aquarium  to  hold  the  glass  in  place  until  the 
cement  hardens.  Cut  off  all  the  superfluous  cement  and 
smooth  neatly  along  the  seams  and  angles.  The  aquarium 
should  stand  at  least  a  week  to  become  thoroughly  dry 
before  putting  water  into  it. 

While  the  aquarium  described  above  will  be  found  very 
convenient,  aquatic  animals  may  be  studied  in  jars  of 
various  kinds.  Candy,  butter,  and  Mason  jars  are  good 
substitutes  for  more  elaborate  aquaria.  Cheap  glass 
dishes  that  can  be  purchased  for  ten  or  fifteen  cents  serve 
very  well  for  certain  aquatic  animals,  such  as  the  water 
bugs,  beetles,  and  young  dragon  flies. 

In  arranging  an  aquarium  that  is  to  be  kept  perma- 
nently, a  good  rule  to  follow  is  to  make  conditions  as  nearly 
like  those  of  the  pond  as  possible.  Let  the  children  help 
to  decide  what  to  put  into  it.  A  few  inches  of  sand  in  the 
bottom,  a  few  stones,  and  a  little  of  the  decaying  matter 
found  in  the  bottom  of  the  pond  with  some  of  the  water 
plants  makes  a  good  home  for  any  of  the  animals  named 
above.  Let  the  children  decide  also  what  animals  they 

14 


200         NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

wish  to  put  into  the  aquarium.  Do  not  overstock.  Be 
careful  not  to  put  some  of  the  fierce  insects,  such  as  cybis- 
ter  beetles,  in  the  same  jar  with  small  ones. 

Water  bugs,  whirligig  beetles,  and  water  boatmen  may 
all  be  kept  for  some  time  and  studied  in  detail.  Feed  these 
on  bits  of  fresh  meat,  liver,  or  fish  food. 

In  the  spring  the  dragon  fly  is  a  most  interesting 
specimen  for  study.  Have  the  children  watch  the  insects 
flying  around.  How  many  wings  have  they?  How  do 
they  hold  them?  What  are  they  doing  as  they  fly  through 
the  air  so  hurriedly  ?  They  are  feeding  upon  insects  which 
they  catch  as  they  fly.  They  are  sometimes  called  mosquito 
hawks,  because  they  catch  and  eat  so  many  of  these" annoy- 
ing insects. 

With  a  long-handled  dipper  or  a  garden  rake  scoop  up 
from  the  bottom  of  a  pond  some  of  the  dead  leaves  and 
trash.  The  latter  part  of  April,  or  first  of  May,  is  a  good 
time  to  do  this.  You  will  find  some  peculiar-looking  dark 
insects  among  the  trash.  Have  a  jar  or  pail  of  water  close 
by  and  put  them  into  it.  These  are  young  dragon  flies. 
They  are  called  nymphs.  Put  a  few  of  these  into  your  dish 
or  aquarium.  Feed  them  on  earth  worms  or  bits  of  fresh 
meat.  Put  a  small  quantity  of  the  pond  trash  in  the  dish. 
This  may  contain  small  insects  which  will  serve  as  food. 
Raise  some  mosquito  larvae  as  indicated  at  the  close  of  the 
chapter.  See  if  the  nymphs  will  eat  these.  How  do  the 
nymphs  move  about?  Do  they  swim  as  well  as  crawl? 
How  many  legs  have  they  ?  Have  they  any  wings  ?  Look 
for  wing  pads  on  their  backs.  Can  you  see  their  eyes? 
Do  not  feed  them  for  a  few  hours,  then  put  a  small  bit  of 
fresh  meat  on  the  end  of  wire  and  move  this  about  before 


LIFE  IN  WATER  2OI 

them.  Watch  how  they  get  hold  of  the  meat.  Keep  a 
piece  of  netting,  or  wire  screening,  over  the  aquarium. 
Place  a  few  upright  sticks  in  the  aquarium. 

Some  morning  you  will  find,  instead  of  a  black,  crawling 
bug,  a  beautiful  dragon  fly  in  the  aquarium.  What  did  the 
nymph  do  when  it  got  ready  to  change  to  the  grown-up 
insect?  Did  it  stay  in  the  water?  Look  at  the  nymph 
skin.  How  did  the  dragon  fly  get  out?  Look  on  stems 
of  water  plants  in  ponds  for  the  cast-off  skins  of  dragon 
flies.  Look  closely  at  the  mature  insect.  Can  you  see  its 
eyes?  Are  they  large  or  small?  Why  are  large  eyes  an 
advantage  to  it  as  it  gets  its  food  in  the  air?  Where  are 
its  legs;  near  its  head  or  far  back  on  the  body?  The  legs 
are  used  to  help  in  catching  and  holding  the  prey.  The 
dragon  fly  really  makes  a  basket  out  of  its  legs  in  which  it 
carries  its  dinner. 

When  the  wings  are  thoroughly  dry,  remove  the  cover 
from  the  aquarium  and  watch  while  the  insect  lifts  itself 
on  its  new  wings  and  flies  away.  By  what  other  names  are 
dragon  flies  known?  Snake  doctor,  snake  feeder,  and 
devil's  darning  needle. 

Another  interesting  aquarium  study  is  the  development 
of  toads  and  frogs  from  the  eggs.  The  eggs  may  be  found 
in  ponds  and  pools  in  early  spring.  Frog's  eggs  are  in 
masses  of  white,  jellylike  material  fastened  usually  to 
sticks  or  other  objects  in  the  water.  Toad's  eggs  are  in 
long  ribbonlike  strings  of  the  same  jellylike  material.  As 
with  all  other  specimens  in  the  aquarium,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  have  too  many  of  the  little  tadpoles  in  the 
same  jar. 

Goldfish  are  easily  kept  in  the  schoolroom  and  may 


202    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

well  be  studied  in  detail  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
fisheries  in  g^graphy. 

The  *lx  nistory  of  the  mosquito  may  easily  be  worked 
out  either  in  the  spring  or  fall.  Set  a  jar  or  pail  of  rain 
water  out  of  doors  where  it  will  not  be  disturbed.  The 
mosquitoes  will  find  this  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  it.  By 
looking  every  morning  you  may  be  able  to  find  the  eggs 
like  bits  of  soot  floating  on  the  water.  If  you  do  not  suc- 
ceed in  finding  the  eggs  before  they  hatch,  you  will  be  able 
to  find  the  wrigglers  that  hatch  from  them.  Put  a  num- 
ber of  these  in  jars  or  tumblers  and  have  the  children 
watch  from  day  to  day  and  report  on  what  they  see. 
After  a  few  days  keep  a  cover  over  the  top  of  the  jar  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  full-grown  mosquitoes. 


CHAPTER   XX 

RURAL  SCHOOL   GARDENING 

EVERY  rural  school  should  carry  on  some  phase  of 
garden  work,  if  nothing  more  than  window  gardening  for 
a  portion  of  the  year.  If  there  is  enough  available  space 
for  a  small  garden  the  work  may  be  grouped  into  three 
classes:  (a)  That  which  includes  the  propagation  and 
culture  of  ornamental  plants;  (b)  experimental  work  in 
growing  farm  and  garden  crops;  (c)  the  culture  of  a  few 
industrial  plants  not  commonly  raised  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  school. 

The  ornamental  plants  are  perhaps  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  country  schoolchildren.  The  educational 
and  aesthetic  value  of  having  a  few  flowering  plants  and 
shrubs  on  the  school  grounds  cannot  be  overestimated. 
The  work  may  well  begin  in  the  fall  with  the  making  of 
cuttings  and  bulb  gardening. 

The  question  of  where  to  place  the  plants  so  that  they 
may  not  infringe  upon  the  playground  of  the  children  is  not 
always  easy  to  answer.  As  suggested  in  the  lesson  on 
bulbs  and  bulb  gardening,  a  narrow  bed  may  be  arranged 
on  each  side  of  the  walk.  If  tulips  are  planted  here  in  the 
fall  they  may  be  replaced  by  geraniums  in  the  spring  or  by 
annual-flowering  plants.  If  there  is  a  fence  around  the  yard, 
then  the  back  fence  will  form  an  admirable  background 
for  the  main  flower  bed.  Dig  the  bed  about  three  or  four 

203 


2O4 


NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 


feet  wide  in  front  of  the  fence.  Close  to  the  fence  plant 
seeds  that  produce  high  plants,  such  as  cosmos  or  tall 
nasturtiums  that  will  run  up  over  the  fence,  golden  glow, 
princess  feather,  or  four-o'clock.  In  front  of  the  tall  plants 
put  in  several  rows  of  lower  plants,  and  in  front  of  this  a 
low  border  plant. 

Hardy  plants  that  can  stand  drought  fairly  well  should 
be  chosen.  Nothing  makes  a  prettier  border  plant  than 
sweet  alyssum.  It  requires  little  care  and  continues  to 
bloom  until  after  heavy  frosts.  Other  good  border  plants 
are  portulaca,  California  poppy,  and  candytuft.  For  the 
middle  portion  of  the  bed,  sweet  scabious,  gaillardia, 
phlox,  cornflower,  ageratum,  low  nasturtium,  petunia, 
marigold,  larkspur,  and  balsam  are  all  good. 

Some  attention  should  be  given  to  harmony  of  color. 
If  the  tall  plants  are  yellow,  such  as  golden  glow  or  nas- 
turtiums, then  for  the  lower  plants  forms  should  be  chosen 
that  harmonize  with  yellow.  Golden  glow,  low  nastur- 
tiums, and  California  poppy  or  portulaca,  make  a  good 
color  scheme.  Another  scheme  is,  princess  feather  or 
gaillardia,  sweet  scabious,  sweet  alyssum  or  candytuft. 
The  children  should  help  to  decide  what  colors  will  look 
well  together. 

Besides  the  flowering  annuals,  vines  of  various  kinds 
will  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  school  grounds.  Plant 
vines  to  run  up  over  the  coal  sheds  and  other  outbuildings. 
Of  the  annual  vines  the  wild  cucumber  is  a  good  one.  The 
seeds  of  this  should  be  planted  in  the  fall  or  early  in  March 
so  they  may  be  frosted.  The  morning-glory  is  a  beautiful 
annual  vine  and  a  rapid  grower.  The  principal  objection 
to  it  is  the  rankness  of  its  growth. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   GARDENING  205 


Woodbine  is  a  very  satisfactory  perennial  vine;  so  is 
the  white  clematis,  and  the  matrimony  vine.  A  woodbine 
may  be  set  out  to  climb  over  a  building  and  morning- 
glories  planted  at  the  foot  of  this.  The  latter  will  climb 
up  the  woodbine  making  a  very  pretty  effect. 

A  few  shrubs  should  be  found  in  every  country  school 
ground.  These  should  be  arranged  in  clumps  in  one  or 
two  corners  of  the  yard,  or  near  the  corner  of  the  buildings. 
They  should  be  set  out  close  enough  together  to  form  a 
mass  of  foliage  by  the  time  they  are  four  or  five  years  old. 
A  strip  two  feet  wide  at  the  base  of  a  clump  of  shrubs  may 
be  used  for  bulbs  or  for  annual-flowering  plants. 

Some  satisfactory  shrubs  are:  flowering  quince,  snow- 
ball, common  dogwood,  syringa,  spiraea  or  bridal  wreath, 
and  elder. 

All  the  work  should  be  so  planned  that  the  children 
will  feel  a  sense  of  ownership  and  take  a  keen  interest  in 
keeping  the  grounds  beautiful. 

If  the  school  grounds  are  large  enough,  a  plot  ten  by 
twenty  feet  may  be  set  apart  for  experimental  work  in 
agriculture  and  horticulture.  This  should  be  a  sort  of 
miniature  experimental  station  where  some  simple  prob- 
lems relating  to  the  crops  9f  the  districts  may  be  worked 
out.  Different  varieties  of  oats  may  be  planted  one 
year,  and  the  yields  estimated;  or  different  kinds  of 
wheat,  to  see  which  seems  best  adapted  to  the  soil  con- 
ditions. Different  varieties  of  corn  could  be  tried  from 
year  to  year. 

A  very  small  plot  of  ground  might  well  be  used  for 
industrial  plants  in  order  that  the  children  may  become 
acquainted  with  plants  that  give  them  various  useful  arti- 


206    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

cles,  such  as  flax,  cotton,  hemp,  sugar  cane,  broom  corn, 
castor-oil  bean,  and  kaffir  corn. 

No  attempt  need  be  made  to  raise  all  of  them  the  same 
year.  Raise  two  or  three  one  year,  and  follow  those  by 
others  the  next  year,  and  so  on.  A  few  samples  of  each 
should  be  put  away  from  year  to  year,  making  in  time  a 
valuable  collection  that  may  be  used  in  connection  with 
the  geography  lessons. 

Here,  as  in  school  gardening,  everywhere  the  real  value 
comes  in  having  the  children  carry  the  work  over  into  the 
home  garden.  The  children  should  be  encouraged  in 
every  way  possible  to  start  flower  gardens  of  their  own. 
Some  time  might  well  be  given  to  the  discussion  of  some 
good  varieties  of  flowering  plants  for  the  home,  how  and 
where  to  plant  them. 

Books  and  Bulletins:  The  Nursery  Book,  Bailey;  The 
Practical  Garden  Book,  Hunn  and  Bailey.  Farmers' 
Bulletins:  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  Beauti- 
fying the  Home  Grounds,  No.  185;  Annual  Flowering 
Garden,  No.  195;  The  School  Garden,  No.  218;  Tomato 
Growing,  No.  76;  Potato  Culture,  No.  35;  The  Vegetable 
Garden,  No.  94;  Potato  Diseases  and  their  Treatment,  No. 
91;  The  Home  Fruit  Garden,  No.  154;  Strawberries,  No. 
198;  Raspberries,  No.  213;  The  Home  Vineyard  with 
Special  Reference  to  Northern  Conditions,  No.  156. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR    CONDUCTING    WORK    IN    THE    SEVENTH 
AND  EIGHTH   GRADES 

THE  purpose  of  the  work  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  in  addition  to  the  training  in  accurate  observation, 
open-mindedness,  and  independence  of  thought,  is  to  aid 
the  pupils  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  fundamental  prin- 
ciples underlying  successful  agriculture. 

Much  may  be  accomplished  by  following  the  same 
plan  as  with  the  lower  grades.  Some  of  the  general 
exercise  studies  may  be  carried  much  farther  by  these 
pupils.  They  may  be  given  specific  problems  to  work  out, 
and  special  reading  in  connection  with  the  subject  under 
discussion.  For  example,  with  the  study  of  grasshoppers, 
have  them  find  out  to  what  extent  these  insects  injure  the 
grain  crops  in  their  district;  or  what  field  birds  help  most 
in  keeping  these  and  other  insects  in  check.  Refer  them  to 
bulletins  that  will  give  them  information  along  these  lines. 

If  the  work  in  these  grades  accomplishes  all  that  it 
should,  it  ought  to  have  at  least  two  recitation  periods 
devoted  to  it  each  week.  The  need  of  experiments  as 
well  as  observation  makes  this  almost  essential. 

So  far  as  possible,  the  work  of  each  year  as  indicated 
in  the  outline  has  been  made  a  unit.  By  this  arrangement 
the  work  of  the  two  years  may  alternate,  a  plan  that  works 
in  many  country  schools. 

207 


208    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Teachers  should  look  over  the  lessons  carefully  in  order 
to  plan  their  work  successfully.  Many  of  the  experiments, 
especially  in  soil  physics  and  in  the  work  of  plants,  must 
be  started  several  days,  or  in  some  cases  weeks  before 
giving  the  lesson. 

A  list  of  bulletins  that  contain  much  helpful  informa- 
tion is  placed  at  the  close  of  each  chapter.  No.  195,  en- 
titled Some  Exercises  Illustrating  Some  Applications  of 
Chemistry  to  Agriculture  will  be  found  especially  helpful  in 
working  out  the  lessons  in  soil  chemistry,  and  No.  186, 
Exercises  in  Elementary  Agriculture,  will  be  helpful  in  the 
lesson-  on  soil  physics  and  the  work  of  plants.  All  the 
bulletins  listed  may  be  obtained  free  by  applying  to  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

A  few  pieces  of  apparatus  are  indispensable  in  con- 
ducting the  lessons  in  physical  experiments  in  the  seventh 
grade,  and  in  soil  studies  in  the  eighth.  The  following 
list  of  necessary  articles  may  be  obtained  at  a  very  little 
cost. 

Alcohol  lamp.  This  may  be  made  from  a  vaseline 
bottle.  Get  the  tinner  to  make  you  a  small  tin  tube  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  long.  Push  this  through  the  middle  of 
the  cork  and  punch  out  the  cork  inside  the  tube.  Twist 
some  soft  string  into  a  wick  and  pull  it  through  the  tube. 
Fill  the  bottle  a  little  over  half  full  of  alcohol.  Wood 
alcohol  will  serve  as  well  as  grain.  Turn  a  small  vial  or 
thimble  over  the  wick  to  prevent  evaporation. 

A  test  tube.  A  small  glass  flask  having  a  rubber 
stopper  with  a  hole  in  it.  A  measuring  cup;  a  glass  one 
may  be  purchased  for  ten  cents  at  any  crockery  store.  A 
thermometer.  A  long  iron  nail,  a  heavy  piece  of  iron  wire, 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  CONDUCTING  WORK        209 

or  a  long  slender  bolt.  A  piece  of  glass  tubing  one-fourth 
inch  in  diameter.  A  piece  of  rubber  tubing.  Several 
plates,  saucers,  and  tumblers.  Two  tin  cups.  Several 
pint  and  quart  Mason  jars.  Half  a  dozen  student's  lamp 
chimneys. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

POLLINATION   AND  SEED   FORMING 

Problem. — What  is  the  work  o)  a  flower?  What  is 
pollination  and  how  is  it  secured  by  different  flowers  ? 

For  this  study  any  flower  in  which  all  the  parts  are  well 
represented  should  be  selected.  Petunia,  nasturtium, 
morning-glory,  and  tomato  are  all  good.  It  is  well  to 
study  more  than  one  flower. 

Find  the  parts  of  the  flower:  (a)  corolla,  composed  of 
petals,  the  colored  showy  part,  called  polypetalous  when 
the  petals  are  separate  as  in  the  nasturtium,  sympetalous 
when  the  petals  are  grown  together  as  in  the  petunia;  (b) 
calyx,  composed  of  sepals,  sometimes  green,  as  in  the 
petunia,  sometimes  colored,  as  in  the  nasturtium. 

Find  the  stamens.  How  many?  Note  the  slender 
filaments  and  the  knoblike  anther.  Can  you  find  any 
powder  (pollen)  in  the  anther?  Compare  anthers  in  old 
flowers  with  those  newly  opened.  What  has  happened  in 
the  older  ones  ?  Examine  the  pistil.  Make  out  the  ovary 
at  the  base,  the  style,  and  the  stigma  at  the  top.  What  is 
the  use  of  the  stigma  ?  This  is  to  catch  the  pollen.  When 
it  is  ripe,  or  just  ready  to  catch  pollen,  it  is  sticky.  When- 
ever pollen  is  transferred  from  an  anther  to  a  stigma 
pollination  has  taken  place.  Pollination  then  is  the  trans- 
fer of  pollen  from  anther  to  stigma  and  nothing  more.  It 
should  not  be  confused  with  the  subsequent  and  entirely 


POLLINATION  AND   SEED   FORMING          211 

lifferent  act  of  fertilization.  If  the  pollen  is  transferred 
from  the  anther  to  the  stigma  of  the  same  flower,  it  is 
called  close  or  self-pollination.  If  the  pollen  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  anther  of  one  flower  to  the  stigma  of  an- 
other, it  is  called  cross  pollination.  With  a  sharp  knife 
cut  an  ovary  in  two  across  the  middle.  What  do  you  find 
on  the  inside?  Those  tiny  seedlike  bodies  are  called 
ovules. 

Have  children  watch  the  development  of  a  flower  from 
the  time  it  opens  until  the  seed  is  ripe.  What  parts  of  the 
flower  wither  and  drop  off?  What  parts  remain?  What 
part  becomes  the  seed  pod  ?  What  part  becomes  the  seed 
or  seeds? 

Problem. — Is  pollination  necessary  to  produce  seeds? 

If  plants  are  growing  near  the  school-  select  some 
nasturtium  flowers  that  are  just  opening  and  carefully 
remove  the  stamens  with  a  pair  of  sharp-pointed  scissors, 
then  cover  the  flower  with  a  paper  bag  so  that  no  pollen  can 
be  conveyed  from  other  flowers  to  the  stigma.  Treat 
another  flower  in  the  same  way,  but  leave  the  paper  bag  off. 

Leave  the  bag  on  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  then  remove 
and  note  conditions.  Cgver  enough  flowers  in  this  way  so 
that  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as  to 
results.  If  there  are  no  plants  near  the  school,  have  some 
of  the  reliable  pupils  start  the  experiments  at  home  and 
bring  the  plants  to  school  for  observation  and  study. 

What  are  the  agents  that  aid  in  transferring  pollen 
from  one  plant  to  another  ?  Have  pupils  watch  the  insects 
that  visit  flowers  or  draw  upon  their  observation  and 
experience.  They  will  probably  know  also  that  the  wind 
as  well  as  insects  is  an  agent  of  pollination. 


212         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

The  children  cannot  see  what  takes  place  after  the 
pollen  grain  has  fallen  upon  the  stigma.  But  they  should 
know  that  the  pollen  grain  germinates  or  sprouts  on  the 
stigma  and  a  small  tube  grows  down  the  style  into  the 
ovary.  In  this  tube  are  certain  small  cells.  One  of  these 
cells  unites  with  a  cell  in  one  of  the  ovules,  and  the  new 
cell  formed  by  this  union  is  the  beginning  of  a  new  plant. 
It  forms  the  embryo,  which  is  the  essential  part  of  the  seed. 
This  act,  the  uniting  of  these  two  cells,  is  called  fertiliza- 
tion. Pollination,  then,  is  the  first  act,  and  fertilization 
the  second  in  forming  the  seed.  The  children  now  see 
why  pollination  is  necessary  for  a  plant  to  produce  seed. 

Problem.— Would  it  be  possible  for  you  to  pollinate  a 
flower  by  hand,  choosing  the  plant  from  which  the  pollen 
is  taken? 

Remove  the  stamens  of  a  nasturtium  in  flowers  as  in 
the  previous  experiment,  then  with  a  brush  or  triangular 
bit  of  paper  transfer  some  pollen  to  the  stigma.  Place  a 
bag  over  it  so  no  other  pollen  can  get  on  it.  This  is  known 
as  hand  pollination. 

Cornflower.  Find,  if  possible,  some  belated  corn  plants 
that  are  still  young  enough  to  show  fresh  tassels  and  silks. 

How  many  kinds  of  flowers  do  you  find  on  the  corn? 
The  most  prominent  kind  forms  the  tassel.  Examine  a 
tassel.  Is  it  a  single  flower  or  a  cluster  of  many  ?  Have 
these  flowers  bright  petals  as  the  nasturtium?  What 
essential  part  of  the  flower  is  found  in  the  tassel?  Since 
only  stamens  are  found  here  this  is  called  a  staminate 
flower.  Can  you  find  any  pollen  in  the  stamens  ?  What  is 
the  other  essential  organ  of  any  flower  ?  When  the  pistils 
are  borne  in  separate  flowers  we  call  these  pistillate  flowers. 


POLLINATION  AND   SEED  FORMING          213 

Where  are  the  pistillate  flowers  of  the  corn?  Find  an  ear 
that  is  just  forming,  or  at  least  a  young  ear.  Pull  off  the 
husks  and  notice  the  very  small  grains  on  the  cob.  Each 
of  these  is  an  ovary.  What  is  attached  to  each  grain? 
The  silk  is  the  style.  Where  is  the  stigma?  This  is  at 
the  very  tip  end  of  the  silk.  If  pollination  takes  place, 
what  is  necessary?  One  grain  of  pollen  must  fall  upon 
the  stigma  of  each  silk.  How  is  corn  pollen  scattered? 
Is  there  much  pollen  produced  ?  What  evidence  have  we 
that  the  wind  carries  pollen  long  distances?  Discuss  at 
this  point  what  must  happen  in  order  that  fertilization  may 
take  place.  The  pollen  grain  must  germinate  on  the 
stigma  and  then  the  pollen  tube  must  grow  down  through 
the  entire  length  of  the  style  till  it  reaches  the  ovary  where 
the  union  of  the  two  cells  will  occur.  This,  as  you  know, 
is  the  beginning  of  a  seed.  Do  you  think  that  corn  is 
likely  to  be  self  pollinated  or  cross  pollinated  ?  Why  ? 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

PLANT  BREEDING 

BECAUSE  seeds  of  plants  are  produced  by  the  union  of 
two  cells,  one  from  the  pollen  grain  and  the  other  in  the 
ovary  of  the  pistil,  it  is  possible  to  produce  new  varieties 
or  strains  of  certain  plants.  Plants,  like  animals,  inherit 
characteristics  of  their  parents.  Now,  if  the  pollen  from 
one  plant  germinates  on  the  stigma  of  another,  the  result 
of  the  fertilization  which  follows  is  a  seed  which  will  prob- 
ably partake  of  the  qualities  of  both  parents.  Florists 
and  horticulturists  have  taken  advantage  of  this  to  produce 
new  varieties  of  flowers  and  vegetables. 

Of  late  years  much  has  been  done  to  improve  the  corn 
crops  by  a  process  of  breeding. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  careful  experiment  that  corn 
which  is  cross  pollinated  produces  stronger,  better  plants 
than  that  which  is  self  pollinated.  How  could  you  in- 
sure cross  pollination  of  a  number  of  ears  of  corn?  The 
hand-pollination  method  which  was  tried  with  the  nas- 
turtium may  be  employed.  This,  of  course,  would  have 
to  be  done  just  at  the  time  that  the  corn  is  in  flower,  or  just 
as  it  is  beginning  to  "  shoot,"  as  farmers  say.  Pollen  isj 
collected  from  one  plant  in  a  sauce  dish  or  other  shallow 
receptacle  and  the  ends  of  the  silks  of  another  plant  gently 
dipped  into  this.  Then  a  paper  bag  is  tied  over  the  ear  so  | 
that  no  other  pollen  can  reach  the  stigma.  In  this  way 

214 


PLANT  BREEDING  215 

one  may  select  desirable  stalks  and  expect  to  have  seeds 
that  will  reproduce  the  good  qualities  of  both  parents. 

There  is  another  method  that  is  less  tedious  and  that  is 
coming  more  and  more  into  practice,  and  that  is  by  de- 
tasseling.  Some  of  the  stalks  are  detasseled  before  the 
anthers  are  ripe.  That  means,  of  course,  that  the  ears  on 
those  stalks  will  have  to  be  cross  pollinated. 

Any  boy  can  start  a  corn-breeding  plot  on  a  simple 
scale  on  his  father's  farm.  The  first  requisite  is  to  have 
the  location  of  the  plot  as  far  from  all  other  corn  as  possible. 
In  the  center  of  an  oat  field  is  a  good  place.  The  next 
thing  is  to  decide  what  strain  or  variety  of  corn  to  plant. 
Select  an  ear  for  each  row.  Number  the  ears  and  rows 
alike,  and  then  hang  up  the  ears  for  future  reference. 
One  method  of  selecting  ears  is  given  in  the  lesson  on 
selecting  and  judging  seed  corn.  The  corn  should  receive 
the  same  attention  as  the  other  corn  on  the  farm.  The 
rows  of  corn  may  differ  from  the  start  because  of  inherent 
difference  in  the  ears.  If  any  of  the  rows  show  decided 
marks  of  weakness,  all  the  stalks  in  these  should  be  de- 
tasseled; also  any  undesirable  stalks  in  any  of  the  rows. 
The  tassels  should  be  pulled  off  as  soon  as  they  show 
plainly  in  the  top  of  the  stalks.  In  order  to  secure  cross- 
pollinated  seed,  one  half  of  each  row  should  be  detasseled. 
Begin  at  one  end  of  the  first  row,  and  detassel  to  the  middle; 
then,  beginning  in  the  middle,  detassel  the  other  end  of  the 
second  row,  and  so  on.  From  which  end  of  each  will  you 
choose  your  ears  for  seed  ?  Why  ?  From  these  stalks  the 
desirable  ears  are  chosen  for  the  breeding  plot  next  year. 
One  thing  to  breed  for  is  productiveness.  To  find  which 
row  produced  the  greatest  yield  it  will  be  necessary  to 

15 


216    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

gather  all  the  ears  from  each  row  separately  and  weigh, 
adding  to  this  the  weight  of  the  selected  seed  ears.  The 
most  productive  ears  should  be  saved  for  the  breeding  plot 
next  year,  while  the  best  of  the  others  should  be  saved  for 
general  planting  on  the  farm.  Since  a  small  breeding  plot 
will  not  produce  enough  seed  for  the  entire  farm,  the  seed 
from  this  should  be  planted  in  a  field  by  itself.  From  this 
field  and  the  breeding  plot  seed  should  be  selected  for  the 
next  year's  planting.  In  this  way  the  productiveness  of 
the  entire  crop  may  be  greatly  increased  in  a  few  years. 

Books:  Plant  Breeding,  De  Vries. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

INSECTS 

INSECT  study  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should 
be  linked  as  closely  as  possible  with  the  study  of  plants. 
If  the  pupils  have  had  no  previous  study  of  insects,  then  it 
is  better  to  begin  with  some  of  the  large  forms  for  the  pur- 
pose of  getting  acquainted  with  the  characteristics  common 
to  all  insects.  A  grasshopper  is  a  good  type  to  study  for 
biting  mouth  parts;  a  squash  or  box-elder  bug,  for  piercing 
and  sucking  mouth. 

The  plant  life  of  any  locality  should  determine  largely 
the  special  insects  to  be  emphasized  in  these  grades.  In 
a  region  where  corn  is  the  chief  crop,  the  insect  pests  com- 
mon to  this  plant  should  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  work. 
In  a  fruit-growing  community  the  insects  found  on  the 
fruit  trees  and  shrubs  should  receive  most  attention. 

Aphids. — Aphids  or  plant  lice  may  be  found  on  weeds, 
golden  glow,  willows,  rose  bushes,  cherry  and  plum  stems, 
cabbage  leaves,  wild  lettuce,  etc.  They  are  small  insects 
which  vary  much  in  color.  Some  are  almost  black,  some 
red,  some  green.  Have  the  children  bring  in  some  leaves 
with  aphids  on  them.  Do  all  aphids  on  the  plant  look 
alike  ?  You  will  probably  find  on  one  plant  several  stages 
of  the  insect;  some  small  ones  without  wings;  some  larger 
with  small  pads;  the  beginning  of  wings  on  the  sides;  and 
some  that  have  quite  large  wings  folded  above  the  body. 

217 


218    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

These  last  look  like  small  flies.  What  are  the  aphids 
doing?  Hold  the  leaf  or  stem  on  a  level  with  the  eye  and 
look  closely  at  the  head  of  the  aphid  to  find  the  slender 
sucking  tube  which  is  inserted  in  the  leaf  or  stem.  It  is 
just  like  the  sucking  tube  of  the  squash  bug.  What  kind  of 
food  does  the  aphid  eat,  solid  or  liquid?  Do  you  think 
putting  some  poison  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf  will  kill  the 
aphid?  Why?  In  order  to  kill  these,  something  must  be 
used  that  will  kill  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  body. 
Kerosene  emulsion  is  a  good  remedy.  How  many  legs 
has  an  aphid?  How  do  they  hold  their  horns  or  an- 
tennae? 

Did  you  find  any  other  insects  on  the  plants  with  the 
aphids?  You  will  often  find  ants.  What  are  the  ants 
doing?  The  children  may  or  may  not  be  able  to  make 
out  that  the  ants  are  here  to  get  something  to  eat.  The 
aphids  throw  out  from  their  bodies  a  sweet  liquid  known  as 
honey  dew.  The  ants  are  very  fond  of  this  sweet  substance, 
so  that  wherever  you  find  plant  lice  you  are  almost  certain 
to  find  some  ants.  You  will  often  find  flies,  also,  sipping 
the  honey  dew. 

Look  at  the  roots  of  small  stunted  stalks  of  corn.  You 
may  find  some  green  aphids,  the  corn-root  lice,  on  the 
youngest,  most  tender  roots.  You  are  more  likely  to  find 
them  in  the  summer,  when  the  corn  is  growing  vigorously, 
than  in  the  fall.  You  may  also  find  a  small  brown  ant 
near  the  corn  root,  or  perhaps  nests  of  them  in  the  corn- 
field. Even  if  it  is  too  late  to  find  the  corn  louse  this  fall, 
encourage  the  boys  to  look  for  it  next  year  when  the  corn  is 
growing.  Encourage  them  also  to  destroy  any  ants'  nests 
they  may  find  in  the  cornfield  or  vicinity. 


INSECTS  219 


Why  should  they  do  this  ?  The  female  aphids  lay  their 
shiny  black,  oval  eggs  in  the  ground  during  the  fall  months. 
The  little  brown  ants  find  these,  carry  them  to  their  under- 
ground homes,  and  keep  them  safely  through  the  winter. 
They  often  carry  the  eggs  out  into  the  sunshine  during  the 
warm  part  of  the  day  and  back  into  the  burrows  at  night. 
These  eggs  hatch  in  the  early  spring  into  young  aphids. 
The  ants  at  once  place  these  on  the  roots  of  smart  weeds. 
When  the  corn  is  beginning  to  grow,  the  ants  place  the 
aphids  on  the  corn  roots  from  which  they  suck  the  juices 
with  their  sharp  sucking  tubes.  The  ants  get  their  pay 
for  all  this  work  in  the  form  of  honey  dew  which  the  aphids 
throw  out. 

Each  aphid  that  hatches  from  an  egg  is  called  a  stem 
mother.  In  less  than  a  month  this  stem  mother  begins  to 
reproduce  young.  All  these  are  females  which  in  a  month's 
time  begin  also  to  produce  young.  So  in  less  than  two 
months  the  stem  mother  may  become  the  ancestor  of 
thousands  of  young  lice.  This  goes  on  all  summer.  Most 
of  these  aphids  are  wingless.  Once  in  a  while  there  is  a 
generation  that  has  wings.  These  fly  away  to  some  other 
part  of  the  field,  or  to  another  field.  Some  of  them  drop 
to  the  ground,  and  are  found  by  ants  who  carry  them  at 
once  to  the  corn  roots.  In  the  fall  a  brood  of  true  males 
and  females  is  produced.  These  females  are  the  ones 
that  deposit  eggs  for  the  next  year's  crop  of  aphids.  You 
can  readily  see  why  the  destruction  of  the  ants'  homes  is  to 
be  encouraged. 

One  of  the  methods  employed  to  destroy  these  pests  is 
to  break  up  the  ground  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring, 
and  then  before  corn  planting  go  over  it  once  or  twice  with 


220          NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

disk  or  cultivator  in  order  to  destroy  the  smart  weeds,  and 
as  many  of  the  ants'  nests  as  possible. 

The  life  history  of  all  other  aphids  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  corn-root  louse.  One  reason  they  are 
so  destructive  is  because  they  multiply  so  rapidly. 

One  species  of  aphid  is  often  found  on  the  oats  in  early 
summer.  It  is  known  in  some  localities  as  the  "  green 
bug."  It  sucks  the  juice  from  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the 
oats  and  is  often  very  destructive. 

Aphids  have  many  natural  foes.  Among  these  are  the 
ladybug  beetles,  the  aphis  lion,  braconid  and  syrphus  flies, 
as  well  as  a  number  of  birds. 

The  White  Grub. — White  grubs  may  be  studied  either 
in  autumn  or  spring.  They  are  found  abundantly  in  the 
soil  of  fields  and  gardens,  in  potato  patches,  and  often  in 
pastures  and  lawns  where  they  kill  our  great  areas  of  grass. 

Ask  the  pupils  to  save  and  bring  in  some  white  grubs. 
To  keep  these  insects  alive  place  them  in  a  tin  can  or  pail 
in  which  there  is  plenty  of  moist  soil.  Place  on  top  of  the 
soil  a  piece  of  fresh  grass  sod,  firm  it  down  with  your  hand 
gently,  keep  it  watered  but  not  made  wet.  Set  the  pail 
aside  for  several  days.  At  the  end  of  this  time  carefully 
lift  up  the  sod.  You  will  probably  find  some  of  the  grubs 
under  it.  Note  the  position  of  the  body.  Is  there  any 
advantage  in  keeping  it  curled  up  in  this  fashion  ?  Is  the 
grub  lying  on  its  back  or  under  side  ?  Has  it  a  tunnel  to 
lie  in  ?  What  has  it  been  doing  here  ?  Look  at  the  grass 
roots.  Can  you  see  whether  any  of  these  have  been  eaten  ? 
Look  carefully  at  the  structure  of  the  insect.  Has  it  a 
distinct  head?  How  does  this  differ  in  color  from  the 
body?  Is  the  body  hard  or  soft?  What  kind  of  a  mouth 


INSECTS  221 

has  the  grub  ?  Look  at  the  front  of  the  head  for  the  strong 
hooklike  jaws.  It  is  with  these  that  it  bites  off  the  roots  of 
plants  and  underground  stems  of  plants.  Do  the  grubs 
ever  kill  plants  iii  this  way  ?  How  many  legs  have  they  ? 
Where  are  the  legs  situated?  What  is  the  use  of  these 
legs?  Put  the  insect  on  the  floor  or  desk.  Can  it  crawl 
well  ?  Now  put  it  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  watch  to 
see  how  it  succeeds  in  burrowing  into  the  ground.  Is 
there  anything  on  the  feet  that  enables  it  to  dig  easily? 
Have  the  pupils  name  all  the  adaptation  this  insect  has  for 
living  in  the  ground  rather  than  on  the  surface. 

Does  it  do  any  harm  besides  killing  out  grass  ?  Some 
of  the  pupils  will  probably  know  how  destructive  these 
white  grubs  are  in  cornfields,  strawberry  beds,  and  gardens. 

Life  Hislory.—It  may  not  be  possible  for  the  pupils  to 
work  out  any  part  of  the  life  history  of  this  insect.  It  all 
depends  upon  how  old  the  grubs  are  that  you  are  studying. 
If  the  study  is  made  early  in  September  it  is  worth  while 
trying  to  get  the  pupae.  To  do  this  simply  feed  the  grubs 
plenty  of  grass  roots  by  renewing  the  sod  whenever  it 
begins  to  wither.  In  a  few  weeks  the  griibs  will  go  down 
into  the  soil,  make  little  tunnels,  and  in  these  change  to  a 
pupa.  A  pupa  looks  like  a  light,  brown  mummy  with 
undeveloped  wings  and  legs  folded  close  to  the  sides  and 
under  part  of  the  body. 

In  a  few  weeks  the  grown-up  insect  emerges  from  the 
pupa  but  remains  in  the  ground  all  winter. 

The  spring  is  by  far  the  best  time  to  study  the  grown- 
up insects  or  beetles.  These  come  out  of  their  winter 
quarters  in  great  numbers  during  May.  They  are  com- 
monly known  as  June  bugs. 


222    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

When  do  you  find  the  beetles  flying  around;  during 
the  daylight  or  after  night  ?  They  often  fly  into  our  houses 
attracted  by  the  light.  Set  a  lantern  or  lamp  out  on  the 
porch  and  catch  a  number  of  these  for  study  next  day. 
These  can  easily  be  preserved  for  fall  study  by  putting 
them  in  a  wide -mouth  bottle  and  covering  them  with 
alcohol.  Pour  a  little  melted  paraffin  or  sealing  wax  over 
the  top  and  around  the  stopper  to  keep  the  alcohol  from 
evaporating. 

How  does  the  beetle  compare  with  the  grub  as  to 
length  and  color?  Which  has  the  harder  body?  Which 
has  longer  legs  ?  Which  is  stouter  and  thicker  ?  Are  the 
beetle's  jaws  as  large  as  those  of  the  grub?  What  does 
the  beetle  eat?  It  is  hard  for  the  children  to  determine 
this  since  the  beetles  eat  during  the  night.  They  feed  upon 
the  leaves  of  various  trees,  such  as  cottonwood,  cherry, 
birch,  and  no  doubt  many  others.  Notice  their  wings. 
How  are  the  outer  wings  related  to  each  other  ?  Do  they 
overlap  or  just  meet?  Lift  up  the  outer  wings.  How  are 
the  inner  wings  folded  ?  Are  they  longer  or  shorter  than 
outer  wings  ?  Which  pair  is  used  in  flight  ?  What  is  the 
use  of  the  hard,  outer  pair?  Watch  a  beetle  when  it 
alights  to  see  how  it  succeeds  in  tucking  the  inner  wings 
under  the  outer  ones. 

These  beetles  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground  very  often  in 
the  cornfields.  After  the  eggs  are  laid  the  beetles  die,  so 
that  by  the  last  of  June  most  of  the  June  bugs  have  disap- 
peared. The  egg  hatches  into  a  small  white  grub  that 
begins  at  once  to  feed  upon  decaying  matter  in  the  soil  and 
later  upon  plant  roots.  When  cold  weather  approaches  it 
burrows  down  into  the  ground  below  the  frost  line  and  re- 


INSECTS 


223 


mains  dormant  during  the  winter.  In  the  spring  it  comes 
up  and  begins  feeding  again.  Toward  fall  it  probably 
pupates,  although  it  is  not  definitely  known  whether  all 
species  of  white  grubs  pupate  the  second  fall  or  not.  Some 
may  possibly  live  as  grubs  for  three  summers. 

Since  these  insects  are  such  pests  the  question  of  how 
to  get  rid  of  them  is  of  interest  to  all  farmers.  As  yet  no 
good  remedy  has  been  found.  One  of  the  best  known  is  to 
turn  pigs  into  the  field  whenever  that  is  possible.  The 
pigs  are  so  fond  of  the  grubs  that  they  will  dig  down  into 
the  soil  a  number  of  inches  in  order  to  get  them.  Many 
birds  help  to  lessen  the  number  of  these  pests.  Robins  are 
especially  fond  of  grubs. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

FUNGI   AND   BACTERIA 

THE  purpose  of  the  lessons  on  fungi  is  to  help  the 
boys  and  girls  gain  a  more  intelligent  idea  of  fungous 
diseases  of  plants  and  how  to  combat  them,  as  well  as  of 
the  fungi  that  attack  fruits,  vegetables,  bread,  etc.  We 
should  begin  the  study  with  some  of  the  larger  forms,  so 
that  the  pupils  may  get  a  proper  notion  of  the  habits  and 
method  of  reproduction  of  fungi  in  general. 

Mushrooms  and  Toadstools. — Have  the  children  bring 
in  a  number  of  mushrooms.  They  will  probably  call  them 
toadstools.  The  common  meadow  mushroom  is  usually 
abundant  in  the  fall,  so  are  a  number  of  cluster  mushrooms 
that  grow  at  the  base  of  old  stumps.  Where  are  mush- 
rooms found  growing?  By  discussion  it  will  be  brought 
out  that  they  are  found  in  the  woods,  around  stumps,  on 
trees,  in  meadows,  around  barns,  etc. 

How  many  parts  do  you  find  in  your  mushroom  ?  The 
stem  is  called  the  stipe,  the  umbrellalike  part,  the  pileus. 
You  may  find  small  whitish  threads  attached  to  the  end 
of  the  stipe.  These  make  up  the  mycelium  which  pene- 
trates the  ground  or  stump  or  whatever  the  mushroom  may 
be  growing  upon.  What  do  you  find  on  the  under  side  of 
the  pileus  ?  Those  leaflike  flaps  are  called  gills.  What  are 
they  for  ?  To  answer  this  question  break  the  stem  out  of 
the  pileus  and  then  lay  the  pileus  on  a  piece  of  white  paper 

224 


FUNGI  AND   BACTERIA 


225 


with  the  gills  downward.  Leave  it  for  twenty-four  hours. 
What  do  you  find  on  the  paper  ?  Rub  your  finger  over  it. 
This  fine  powder  is  composed  of  tiny  bodies  like  pollen 
grains,  each  of  which  is  called  a  spore.  These  spores  are 
for  the  production  of  new  plants.  Name  some  of  the 
things  in  which  a  mushroom  differs  from  the  other  plants 
you  have  been  studying.  They  lack  leaves,  green  color, 
flowers,  and  seeds. 

Mold. — About  a  week  before  time  for  this  lesson  place 
moist  pieces  of  stale  bread  on  a  piece  of  pasteboard  and 
turn  tumblers  over  them.  Have  pupils  examine  the  bread. 
What  is  on  it?  On  what  part  of  the  bread  is  the  mold 
most  abundant?  Look  closely  at  the  mold.  How  many 
distinct  parts  can  you  see?  The  mass  of  threads  is  the 
mycelium.  Do  any  of  the  threads  penetrate  the  bread? 
Those  standing  out  from  the  mycelium  with  tiny  white  or 
black  dots  on  the  ends  are  spore-bearers  and  the  dots  are 
spore  cases.  Touch  gently  with  a  pin  a  group  of  these 
black  spore  cases.  What  happens  ?  The  cases  burst  open 
and  a  shower  of  minute  spores  come  out.  What  are  the 
spores  for?  Let  us  plant  some  of  these  spores  to  see  if 
they  will  grow. 

Moisten  a  fresh  piece  of  bread  and  with  a  small  stick 
or  end  of  a  match  transfer  some  of  the  spores  to  this.  Plant 
them  in  rows.  Turn  a  tumbler  over  the  bread  and  ex- 
amine after  forty-eight  hours.  Have  the  spores  germi- 
nated? Let  the  bread  stand  to  find  out  how  long  before 
this  new  crop  of  mold  has  ripe  spores  on  it. 

Another  set  of  experiments  to  show  that  mold  and 
other  fungi  grow  from  spores  is  as  follows:  Procure  a  moldy 
orange  or  lemon,  and  a  perfectly  sound  orange.  Roll  the 


226    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

point  of  a  pin  on  the  moldy  orange,  now  insert  it  about  one 
third  its  length  in  the  good  orange  and  leave  it  there. 
Watch  developments.  What  is  the  first  indication  that 
mold  is  growing  on  the  inside  ?  The  orange  will  become 
soft  around  the  pin.  How  long  before  the  mold  spores 
begin  to  show  on  the  outside  ?  In  order  to  show  that  this  is 
not  due  to  the  puncture  of  the  pin,  sterilize  a  pin  by  putting 
it  in  hot  water  and  place  it  in  the  opposite  side  of  the 
orange.  Do  this  when  you  set  in  the  first  pin.  Tie  a 
label  to  each  pin  so  that  you  will  know  which  had  the  mold 
spore  on  it.  You  will  get  quicker  results  by  setting  the 
orange  in  a  jar  and  covering  the  jar.  Try  planting  the 
spores  of  a  rotten  apple  in  a  sound  one.  Rub  some  of  the 
spores  on  the  unbroken  skin  of  the  apple  or  orange.  Do 
the  spores  grow? 

Where  did  the  mold  come  from  on  the  first  piece  of 
bread?  The  spores  must  have  been  on  it  when  it  was 
moistened  and  put  under  the  tumbler.  They  must  have 
been  in  the  air.  Why  does  stale  bread  mold  more  quickly 
than  fresh?  Why  does  canned  fruit  mold?  Can  mold 
spores  be  killed? 

Pour  boiling  water  over  a  small  piece  of  stale  bread  and 
turn  over  it  a  tumbler  in  which  you  have  just  dashed  boiling 
water.  At  the  side  of  this  place  a  piece  of  the  same  kind 
of  bread  that  is  soaked  in  cold  water  and  has  a  cold  tumbler 
turned  over  it.  Watch  for  developments.  Why  do  you 
pour  boiling  water  in  fruit  jars  before  canning  the  fruit? 
Why  should  lids  of  the  jars  be  sterilized  in  the  same  way? 

Soak  a  piece  of  fresh  bread  in  a  half  glass  of  water  in 
which  you  have  placed  a  few  drops  of  formalin.  Plant 
spores  on  this  as  you  did  on  the  other  piece  of  bread.  Do 


FUNGI  AND  BACTERIA  227 

these  spores  grow?  Why?  Formalin  or  formaldehyde 
kills  the  spores  as  effectively  as  the  hot  water.  However? 
it  cannot  be  used  about  the  house  for  it  is  poison  to  human 
beings.  It  can  be  used,  however,  to  great  advantage  in 
killing  spores  that  produce  fungous  diseases  of  plants. 

What  conditions  are  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  some 
jungi  ? 

Experiments. — Place  some  dry  bread  on  a  piece  of 
pasteboard  and  cover  with  a  tumbler.  Beside  this  place 
some  moistened  bread  and  watch  for  results.  Moisten 
two  pieces  of  bread  and  cover  with  tumblers.  Place  one 
where  it  is  warm;  the  other  where  it  is  cool.  What  con- 
clusion do  you  come  to  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  heat  and 
moisture  on  the  growth  of  mold? 

What  does  the  mold  feed  upon?  The  mushrooms? 
The  apple  rot?  All  of  these  obtain  food  from  the  sub- 
stances on  which  they  grow.  What  part  of  the  plant  do 
you  think  gets  the  food  ?  By  discussion  it  may  be  brought 
out  that  the  threadlike  mycelium  which  penetrates  the 
substances  obtains  the  food.  All  fungi  such  as  mold  and 
mushrooms  that  live  upon  dead  organic  matter  are  called 
saprophytes. 

Do  all  jungi  live  upon  dead  organic  matter,  as  bread, 
stumps,  etc.  ? 

Find  some  lilac  leaves  that  are  covered  with  a  white 
flourlike  growth.  This  is  very  abundant  on  most  lilac 
bushes  in  the  fall.  You  may  find  it  also  on  rose  leaves. 
Examine  the  leaves  closely.  You  will  find  the  white  cover- 
ing consists  of  a  mass  of  very  fine  threads,  the  mycelium. 
Here  and  there  one  of  the  threads  pierces  the  skin  of  the 
leaf.  What  for  ?  It  gets  food  from  the  juices  on  the  inside 


228    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

of  the  leaf.  Notice  the  clusters  of  small  black  bodies. 
What  do  you  think  these  are?  In  these  spore  cases  are 
small  spores  for  the  reproduction  of  the  plant.  This 
fungus  is  known  as  lilac  mildew.  Since  it  lives  upon  a 
living  plant  it  is  called  a  parasite.  The  plant  upon  which 
it  lives  is  called  its  host.  Can  you  think  of  any  other 
parasitic  fungi?  If  possible  have  in  class  some  ears  of 
corn  covered  with  smut.  Examine  this.  What  is  it  com- 
posed of?  The  mass  of  black  sooty  material  is  chiefly 
made  of  spores.  What  is  the  effect  of  this  fungus  on  the 
ear  of  corn  ?  The  smut  plants  have  really  penetrated  the 
young  grains  of  corn,  and  have  lived  upon  these  grains. 
Has  this  fungus  many  or  few  spores?  Much  corn  is 
destroyed  by  this  disease.  What  other  grains  are  attacked 
by  smut?  Both  wheat  and  oats. 

Save  at  harvest  time  a  few  heads  of  oats  or  wheat  with 
smut  on  them.  Can  you  find  any  spores  in  these  ?  What 
will  every  spore  produce  ?  A  new  plant,  which,  like  all  the 
other  fungi  studied,  forms  a  mycelium.  It  usually  begins 
its  growth  when  the  oat  plants  are  about  an  inch  high. 
The  threads  (hyphae)  of  the  fungus  feed  upon  the  growing 
oats,  sometimes  so  weakening  the  plant  that  it  dies.  Do 
you  think  any  of  the  oat  seeds  are  likely  to  have  spores  on 
them  if  they  have  grown  in  a  field  where  some  of  the  heads 
had  been  affected  with  smut?  Can  you  think  of  anything 
that  might  be  done  to  kill  these  smut  spores  ? 

Formaldehyde  will  kill  these  spores  just  as  readily  as  it 
did  the  mold  spores.  The  following  recipe  is  used  by 
many  farmers:  Put  one  pint  of  forty  per  cent,  formalde- 
hyde in  thirty-six  gallons  of  water,  soak  the  seeds  in  this  for 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  then  spread  out  to  dry.  This 


FUNGI  AND   BACTERIA  229 

is  sufficient  for  about  forty  bushels  of  seed.  The  seeds  are 
more  easily  handled  by  putting  them  into  a  gunny  sack, 
and  putting  this  into  the  solution.  Wheat  smut  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner. 

Examine  spots  of  rust  on  wheat  or  oats.  Can  you  find 
any  spores  here?  Are  these  fungous  diseases ?  This  is 
another  fungus  that  feeds  on  the  inside  of  the  leaf  or  stem 
till  it  is  ready  to  produce  spores,  when  it  sends  the  hyphae 
to  the  surface  and  the  spores  are  produced  on  the  outside. 
The  ripe  reddish-brown  spores  on  the  wheat  look  very 
much  like  iron  rust,  hence  the  name. 

Can  you  think  of  any  other  plants  besides  cereals  that 
are  affected  with  fungous  diseases?  Sometimes  plums, 
cherries,  and  peaches  are  attacked  with  a  brown  rot  or 
mold  while  the  fruit  is  hanging  on  the  tree.  The  fruit 
shrivels  up  and  continues  to  cling  to  the  tree  sometimes 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen  off.  This  disease  is  most 
common  on  peach  trees  and  often  destroys  more  than  half 
the  crop.  Have  children  look  on  their  own  trees  at  home 
for  the  dry  peach  "mummies."  These  contain  spores  for 
the  next  year's  crop  of  rot.  What  should  be  done  with  the 
mummy  peaches  that  are  on  the  ground  in  the  fall  or 
winter?  This  disease  as  well  as  other  fungous  diseases 
that  attack  fruit  and  leaves  of  trees  may  be  prevented  by 
spraying  the  trees  with  mixtures  that  will  kill  the  fungi. 

Have  the  children  look  on  their  pear  and  apple  trees 
for  twigs  that  are  black,  and  that  have  on  them  withered 
blackened  leaves.  This  disease  is  called  blight,  and  is  one 
of  the  worst  of  the  fungous  diseases  to  combat.  It  is 
caused  by  a  growth  of  one  of  the  very  smallest  plants  known. 
These  plants  are  called  bacteria.  They  live  in  the  sticky 


230         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

layer  between  the  wood  and  bark.  This  layer  is  called 
the  cambium.  This  is  the  part  of  the  twig  in  which  the 
growth  of  new  wood  takes  place,  and  these  bacteria  are  so 
numerous  that  they  use  up  most  of  the  nourishment  of  the 
twig.  As  a  result  the  twig  dies  and,  of  course,  the  leaves 
must  die  too.  The  best  way  known  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  blight  is  to  cut  off  every  twig  that  is  affected  and  burn  it. 
There  are  many  other  kinds  of  bacteria  besides  those 
that  cause  pear  blight.  They  are  so  small  that  it  is  not 
practicable  to  attempt  to  study  them  by  observation. 
Many  of  them  are  not  more  than  one  twenty-five  thousandth 
of  an  inch  long.  It  is  worth  while  to  know  that  while  these 
plants  are  small  they  are  among  the  most  important  living 
organisms.  They  are  one-celled  plants  and  reproduce  by 
cell  division  instead  of  by  spores.  That  is,  each  cell 
divides  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  becomes  a  mature  cell. 
This  division  continues,  making  the  multiplication  very 
rapid.  Like  the  spores  of  mold,  these  cells  float  about  in 
the  air  or  in  water.  Some  cause  human  disease,  such  as 
typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  etc.  Others  are  beneficial  to 
man,  such  as  those  that  cause  decay  of  vegetable  and 
animal  matter  in  the  soil.  Without  these  we  could  not 
have  any  humus  in  the  soil.  The  bacteria  that  live  on  the 
roots  of  leguminous  plants  are  beneficial.  We  shall  see 
in  our  study  of  clover  just  what  they  do  for  us. 

Farmers'  Bulletin:  The  Grain  Smuts,  No.  75. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

SELECTING,    JUDGING,    AND    STORING    SEED   CORN 

THE  lesson  on  selecting  seed  corn  should  be  given 
after  the  corn  has  become  fully  mature  and  before  there 
are  any  very  hard  frosts. 

What  are  some  of  the  characteristics  that  should  be 
considered  in  choosing  good  seed  corn  ?  One  of  the  most 
important  is  to  choose  corn  that  matures  early  enough  to 
escape  the  first  heavy  frosts. 

A  field  study  should  be  made  with  the  class  if  this  is 
possible.  Most  rural  districts  have  cornfields  near  the 
schoolhouse.  Almost  any  farmer  will  grant  permission  to 
take  the  class  into  the  field  for  study.  If  this  cannot  be 
done  then  the  pupils  may  make  all  the  observations  at 
home. 

First,  spend  a  few  minutes  in  observing  the  general 
character  of  the  corn  plant.  Note  the  jointed  stem,  the 
arrangement  of  the  leaves,  how  the  leaves  are  attached,  the 
number  of  leaves,  their  venation,  and  the  prop  roots. 
Dig  around  one  plant  and  note  the  direction  of  growth  and 
extent  of  the  roots.  Are  all  the  stalks  equally  well  formed  ? 
Are  they  all  standing  erect? 

What  are  desirable  qualities  to  look  for  in  choosing  a 

stalk  you  would  like  to  have  reproduced  next  year?    It 

should  be  a  stout,  upright  stalk  growing  in  a. hill  with  at 

least  two  others,  if  the  hills  are  forty  or  more  inches  apart; 

16  231 


232 


NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 


one  free  from  suckers;  and  one  whose  ear  stem  is  not  more 
than  four  or  five  inches  in  length.  The  ear  or  ears  should 
not  be  too  low  or  too  high,  but  slightly  below  the  middle 
of  the  stalk  and  convenient  in  harvesting.  There  should 
be  no  smut.  The  leaves  should  be  well  formed. 

Having  made  a  study  of  suitable  stalks,  have  the 
children  choose  ears  from  similar  stalks  in  their  own  fields. 
Are  all  the  ears  on  these  stalks  worth  keeping  ?  What  are 
some  of  the  qualities  to  look  for  in  the  ear  ?  It  must  be 
understood  that  the  most  important  character  of  any  seed 
corn  is  the  power  to  reproduce  abundantly,  and  that  this 
quality  cannot  be  ascertained  by  examining  the  ear.  How- 
ever, there  are  a  number  of  qualities  that  a  good  ear  should 
possess  that  may  be  determined  by  observation.  It  should 
be  well  shaped,  usually  cylindrical,  and  well  proportioned, 
not  long  and  slender,  or  short  and  stocky.  The  kernels 
should  all  be  of  the  same  color  and  should  not  show  any 
mixing  of  varieties.  The  ears  should  be  well  matured, 
sound  and  dry,  not  soft  and  flabby.  The  tip  of  the  ear 
should  be  well  filled  out;  the  cob  round,  not  flattened  at 
the  tip.  The  butt  should  be  rounded  with  grains  extending 
well  over  the  cob.  There  should  not  be  wide  spaces  be- 
tween the  rows  of  kernels.  The  kernels  should  fit  closely 
together  and  should  be  of  uniform  length  and  shape.  The 
kernels  should  be  long  and  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  having 
straight  sides  and  edges.  They  should  not  be  soft  and 
with  chaffy  tip  caps. 

Have  each  pupil  bring  ten  ears  from  home  which  have 
been  selected  from  desirable  stalks.  Place  these  on  the 
desk  with  tips  all  pointing  one  way.  Examine  and  judge 
according  to  the  points  given  above.  Add  to  these  the 


SELECTING  AND  STORING  SEED   CORN        233 

following.  Measure  the  length  of  each  ear  and  get  the 
average  of  ten.  Find  the  average  circumference  one  third 
the  distance  from  the  butt.  Find  the  ratio  of  the  average 
circumference  to  the  average  length.  Weigh  five  ears. 
Shell  and  weigh  grain.  Find  percentage  of  grain;  per- 
centage of  cob. 

It  will  aid  greatly  in  this  work  to  have  a  sample  ear  of 
each  variety  which  has  been  raised  by  some  reliable 
corn  breeder.  Have  the  pupils  put  into  the  first  class 
all  the  ears  that  approach  the  standard  ear.  Discard  all 
others. 

Encourage  the  pupils  to  select  in  this  way  a  number  of 
ears  at  home  to  save  for  the  spring  planting. 

The  judging  may  be  done  by  following  the  points  in- 
dicated on  a  score  card  arranged  by  the  Corn  Growers' 
Association.  Almost  all  of  the  points  indicated  above,  as 
well  as  some  others,  are  found  on  one  of  these  score  cards. 
Each  characteristic  counts  so  many  points;  for  example, 
if  an  ear  is  perfect  in  shape  it  scores  ten,  if  a  tip  is  perfect 
it  scores  five,  and  so  on.  An  ear  perfect  in  every  par- 
ticular scores  one  hundred. 

The  following  interesting  and  profitable  exercise  in 
connection  with  corn  study  may  be  conducted  as  field 
work  by  the  class,  or  as  individual  study  at  home.  Select 
a  plot  in  the  fields  ten  hills  each  way.  Find  the  whole 
number  of  stalks  in  the  square,  the  number  with  one  good 
ear,  with  two  good  ears,  number  of  barren  stalks,  number 
with  suckers,  number  with  smut.  Measure  the  distance 
between  the  hills  and  between  the  rows.  How  many 
stalks  should  there  be  in  each  hill  ?  If  the  hills  are  from 
forty  to  forty-four  inches  apart,  there  should  be  three  good 


234         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

stalks.  How  much  does  the  square  lack  of  having  its  full 
quota  of  stalks  ? 

Weigh  twenty  ears  and  estimate  number  of  ears  in  one 
bushel.  Find  yield  of  plot,  and  of  an  acre. 

Weigh  twenty  ears,  hang  up  in  a  dry  place,  and  toward 
spring  weigh  again.  Estimate  percentage  of  shrinkage. 

The  next  step  of  importance,  after  selecting  the  seed 
corn,  is  caring  for  it  during  the  winter.  In  the  first  place, 
the  corn  should  be  dried  as  soon  as  possible  after  gathering. 
It  should  then  be  stored  in  a  dry  place  of  even  temperature. 
It  should  not  be  piled  up  in  heaps,  but  scattered  on  floors 
or  tied  together  and  hung  up  so  that  it  may  be  well  ven- 
tilated. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn, 
No.  229;  Corn  Growing,  No.  199. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

PHYSICAL  EXPERIMENTS 

Evaporation  and  Condensation 

NATURE  study  does  not  mean  a  study  of  plants  and 
animals  exclusively,  but  also  a  study  of  the  soil,  air, 
weather,  and  certain  phenomena  that  touch  our  lives  on 
every  hand.  Indeed,  we  must  know  something  about  the 
underlying  principles  of  physics  before  we  can  understand 
clearly  how  plants  and  soil  and  weather  do  their  work. 

Water  is  the  most  familiar  liquid  that  we  know. 
Water  in  the  solid  form  (ice)  is  so  common  that  we  need 
no  experiment  to  prove  it.  Is  it  possible  to  change  water 
into  a  gas  or  vapor? 

Fill  a  measuring  cup  exactly  half  full  of  water.  Pour 
this  into  an  ordinary  tin  cup  or  tumbler  and  set  in  a  warm 
place.  This  should  be  done  several  hours  before  the  class 
time,  or  even  the  day  before.  Fill  a  glass  flask  or  test  tube 
half  full  of  water,  place  it  over  the  flame  of  the  alcohol 
lamp  till  it  boils  vigorously.  What  do  you  see  coming  out 
of  the  mouth  of  the  flask?  Look  in  the  flask  above  the 
boiling  water,  can  you  see  anything  above  the  water  in 
the  flask  ?  Where  does  the  steam  come  from  that  is  visible 
at  the  mouth  of  the  flask  ?  It  is  visible  here  because  the 
vapor  has  begun  to  change  back  into  water.  Is  the  true 
vapor  of  water  then  visible  or  invisible?  Watch  the  spout 


236    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

of  a  boiling  teakettle.  Can  you  see  anything  close  to  the 
spout  ?  What  is  there,  although  you  cannot  see  it  ?  Why 
can  you  see  steam  at  a  short  distance  from  the  spout? 
Here,  of  course,  the  invisible  vapor  is  changing  back  into  a 
liquid  state. 

Now  examine  the  cup  that  you  set  in  a  warm  place. 
Can  you  see  any  steam  coming  from  it?  Measure  the 
water  carefully.  Has  any  of  it  disappeared?  What  has 
become  of  it?  We  say  it  has  evaporated,  which  means 
that  the  water  has  changed  into  an  invisible  gas  or  vapor. 
The  same  thing  happened  as  when  you  boiled  the  water, 
with  one  difference;  the  evaporation  went  on  more  slowly. 
When  evaporation  takes  place  rapidly  we  sometimes  use 
the  term  vaporize  instead  of  evaporate. 

What  are  some  of  the  conditions  that  influence  the 
evaporation  0}  liquids? 

Experiment. — Measure  exactly  in  the  measuring  cup  a 
half  cup  of  water  and  put  it  into  a  tumbler.  Put  the  same 
amount  into  a  shallow  pan  or  plate,  and  the  same  into  a 
pickle  bottle.  Set  the  three  side  by  side  and  let  them  stand 
until  the  next  day.  Now  measure  carefully.  From 
which  has  the  most  water  evaporated  ?  The  least  ?  What 
caused  the  difference  ?  From  this  we  learn  that  extent  of 
surface  has  a  certain  effect  on  the  rapidity  of  evaporation. 
What  is  it? 

Place  equal  amounts  of  water  in  two  tumblers  or  cups 
of  exactly  the  same  size  and  shape.  Put  one  in  a  warm 
place,  the  other  in  a  cool  place,  and  leave  for  twenty-four 
hours.  Measure  and  note  difference.  What  is  your  con- 
clusion as  to  the  effect  of  temperature  upon  evaporation  ? 

Place  equal  amounts  of  water  in  cups  as  suggested  in 


PHYSICAL  EXPERIMENTS  237 

the  above  experiment.  Set  them  side  by  side  in  a  window 
where  there  is  a  draught  of  air.  If  it  is  not  freezing  weather, 
set  them  outside  on  the  window  sill.  Cover  one  cup  by 
setting  a  sauce  dish  or  saucer  over  it.  Let  them  stand  till 
next  day.  From  which  has  more  water  evaporated? 
Why  ?  In  this  the  temperature  and  surface  were  the  same, 
but  above  one,  air  currents  could  move  freely,  while  above 
the  other  they  could  not.  What  is  the  effect  of  a  change 
of  air  on  the  rapidity  of  evaporation  ?  Why  does  mud  dry 
up  more  quickly  on  a  windy  day  than  on  a  calm  one? 
What  is  the  effect  of  a  rapid  change  of  air  currents  on  the 
drying  of  clothes  on  a  line? 

Place  equal  amounts  of  alcohol  and  water  in  cups 
side  by  side.  Measure  after  twenty-four  hours.  Do  all 
liquids  evaporate  at  the  same  rate?  Can  you  think  of 
other  liquids  besides  alcohol  that  evaporate  more  rapidly 
than  water? 

Rub  a  little  water  with  your  finger  on  the  back  of  your 
hand.  Hold  your  hand  up  in  the  air  waving  it  gently. 
How  does  the  wet  spot  feel?  Touch  your  hand  in  the 
same  way  with  a  drop  of  alcohol.  Does  it  feel  any  colder 
than  when  you  touched  it  with  the  water?  What  is  the 
alcohol  and  the  water  doing?  If  you  have  a  thermometer, 
dip  it  into  alcohol  or  water  and  hold  it  up  in  the  air  and 
move  it  about  till  the  liquid  has  all  evaporated.  Does 
the  mercury  rise  or  fall?  From  all  of  these  experiments 
what  do  you  conclude  as  to  the  effect  of  the  evaporation  of 
liquids  on  surrounding  bodies?  Why  do  you  feel  chilly 
when  you  get  your  clothing  damp  ?  Why  does  sprinkling 
the  street  cool  the  air?  How  is  the  temperature  of  our 
bodies  regulated? 


238          NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

What  causes  the  water  vapor  to  change  back  into  water 
again?  Fill  a  tin  cup  or  glass  flask  half  full  of  water,  set 
it  over  the  flame  of  the  alcohol  lamp  till  the  water  boils. 
Hold  a  cold  plate  about  half  an  inch  above  the  flask. 
What  collects  on  the  plate?  Heat  the  plate  very  hot  and 
then  hold  it  over  the  flask.  Does  as  much  water  collect 
on  the  hot  plate  as  on  the  cold  one?  Which  causes  the 
vapor  to  change  back  into  water,  heat  or  cold?  When 
vapor  changes  back  into  water  .we  call  the  process  con- 
densation. 

Is  there  water  vapor  in  the  air  of  the  room  although  we 
cannot  see  it  ?  Place  some  water  in  a  tumbler  or  a  bright 
tin  cup.  Now  stir  slowly  into  the  water  some  pieces  of 
crushed  ice,  or  better,  some  snow.  If  you  have  a  ther- 
mometer keep  it  in  the  mixture.  Watch  carefully  the  out- 
side of  the  cup.  Where  do  the  drops  of  water  come  from 
that  collect  on  it  ?  Why  does  the  moisture  gather  on  this 
and  not  on  the  other  objects  in  the  room? 

The  children  may  be  led  to  see  that  the  glass  with  the 
ice  in  it  is  so  much  colder  than  the  rest  of  the  room  that  as 
the  air  comes  in  contact  with  it  the  water  vapor  is  con- 
densed and  changed  into  water.  What  causes  dew  to 
gather  on  objects  at  night  ?  The  objects  cool  after  the  sun 
goes  down  and  as  the  air  touches  the  cold  objects  what 
happens  ?  The  more  moisture  there  is  in  the  air  the  more 
quickly  dew  will  form,  other  conditions  remaining  the 
same.  The  temperature  at  which  any  mass  of  air  is  just 
cold  enough  to  have  some  of  its  vapor  condense  is  called 
the  dew  point.  If  you  read  the  thermometer  at  the  mo- 
ment you  saw  the  vapor  begin  to  condense  on  the  cup  you 
had  the  dew  point  of  the  air  in  the  room. 


PHYSICAL  EXPERIMENTS  239 

When  a  teakettle  is  boiling  what  is  the  steam  that  you 
see  ?  These  drops  of  water  in  the  steam  are  so  small  and 
so  light  that  they  float  in  the  air,  forming  a  small  cloud. 
How  are  the  clouds  formed  that  we  see  floating  high  in  the 
air  above  us?  First  we  must  think  where  the  vapor  of 
water  comes  from  that  is  in  the  air.  The  pupils  will  know 
that  evaporation  is  constantly  taking  place  from  the  surface 
of  all  bodies  of  water  as  well  as  from  the  soil. 

Sometimes  the  air  has  just  as  much  vapor  in  it  as  it  can 
possibly  hold.  If  now  it  is  cooled  even  a  little,  what  will 
happen?  The  vapor  will  condense  and  form  a  cloud. 
Suppose  it  is  cooled  still  more,  what  will  happen?  The 
tiny  drops  of  moisture  will  begin  to  unite  and  form  larger 
drops.  Presently  the  drops  will  become  so  large  that  the 
air  can  no  longer  hold  them  up,  so  they  must  fall  and  we 
have  rain. 

Sometimes  the  condensed  vapor  falls  in  the  form  of 
snow  instead  of  rain.  Why  does  it  do  this  ?  We  cannot 
hope  to  answer  this  question  fully.  We  only  know  that 
when  vapor  freezes  as  it  condenses  it  forms  into  crystals 
instead  of  drops. 

•  When  a  snowstorm  occurs  a  special  observation  lesson 
ould  be  given.  Note  the  appearance  of  the  clouds  and 
the  direction  from  which  the  storm  is  coming.  Are  the 
flakes  large  or  small  ?  Examine  several  flakes.  Are  they 
all  the  same  size  and  shape?  Find  some  of  the  small 
crystals.  If  you  have  a  lens,  examine  these  to  see  how 
many  points  they  have.  Is  a  flake  made  up  of  one  or 
more  than  one  crystal?  The  snow  crystals,  while  they 
may  vary  in  external  appearance,  are  all  built  on  the  same 
plan — that  of  a  six-pointed  star.  One  of  the  wonderful 


240    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

things  about  crystallization  is  that  each  substance  has  a 
definite  geometrical  plan  upon  which  its  crystals  are  built. 
If  the  wind  is  blowing  strongly,  note  how  the  drifts  are 
made.  Why  are  these  drifts  in  some  places  and  not  in 
others?  Note  the  drifts  near  buildings  and  trees.  Can 
you  account  for  the  spaces  left  near  the  trees  and  buildings  ? 
These  are  due  to  the  wind  currents  striking  the  object  and 
rebounding,  carrying  the  snow  back  with  them. 

In  the  same  way,  observation  of  sleet,  hail,  and  rain 
storms  should  be  taken  up  informally  as  these  phenomena 
occur. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 

SOME  EFFECTS   OF   HEAT   ON   BODIES 

FROM  our  previous  experiments  we  know  that  heat 
aids  in  the  evaporation  of  liquids. 

Have  some  of  the  pupils  measure  a  piece  of  heavy  iron 
wire,  a  long  nail,  or  bolt  in  the  following  way:  Lay  the 
nail  on  a  piece  of  pine  board  and  make  a  scratch  across 
the  width  of  the  board  at  each  end  of  the  nail.  Now  place 
the  nail  on  a  shovel  on  top  of  a  glowing  bed  of  coals  in  the 
stove.  Heat  it  till  it  is  red  hot.  Now  lay  it  on  the  board, 
trying  to  get  it  exactly  between  the  scratches.  What 
effect  has  the  heat  had  upon  it?  Put  it  out  of  doors  till  it 
is  cold.  Try  it  again  on  the  scratched  board.  What  is 
the  effect  of  cooling  it?  Most  solids  act  as  this  piece  of 
iron  did.  They  expand  when  heated  and  contract  when 
cooled.  Think  of  some  practical  illustrations  of  this. 
Why  heat  a  tire  before  setting  it  on  the  wheel  ?  Why  are 
bolts  which  are  to  hold  together  two  walls  often  heated  red 
before  they  are  put  in,  and  the  nuts  tightened  as  the  bolts 
cool? 

Do  liquids  expand  when  heated  ?  Fill  a  tin  cup  level 
full  of  water,  heat  it  slowly.  What  happens  ?  Put  a  piece 
of  glass  tubing  through  a  rubber  stopper.  Fill  a  glass 
flask  full  of  water.  Put  in  the  stopper.  The  water  should 
now  show  in  the  tube  above  the  stopper.  Slowly  heat  the 
flask.  What  indication  have  you  that  water  expands  with 

241 


242          NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

heat?  When  the  tube  is  almost  full  of  water  set  the  flask 
in  a  cool  place.  Does  the  water  contract?  When  fruit 
jars  are  filled  to  the  top  with  the  hot  fruit,  why  is  it  that 
there  is  a  space  left  at  the  top  of  the  jar  when  the  fruit  has 
cooled  ? 

Will  gases  expand  with  heat?  Use  the  same  flask  as 
in  the  preceding  experiment.  Pour  out  the  water  and  dry 
the  flask  thoroughly.  What  is  in  the  flask  now  that  the 
water  is  out  ?  Insert  the  stopper  as  before,  but  place  over 
the  end  of  the  glass  tube  a  rubber  tube  at  least  a  foot  long. 
Hold  the  end  of  the  rubber  tube  under  water.  Now  slowly 
heat  the  flask.  What  happens?  As  you  heat  the  air  in 
the  flask  it  expands  and  flows  out  through  the  rubber  tube 
as  indicated  by  the  bubbles.  Heat  a  bottle  (a  round 
listerine  bottle  is  a  good  kind),  by  rolling  it  over  and  over 
on  a  hot  stove.  When  hot  turn  it  upside  down  in'  a  tumbler 
one  fourth  full  of  water.  Why  does  the  water  rise  up  in 
the  bottle?  Heating  the  air  expanded  it  so  that  some  of 
the  air  flowed  out  of  the  bottle.  As  it  cooled,  the  air  in  the 
bottle  contracted  and  the  pressure  of  air  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  pushed  the  water  up  into  the  bottle. 

We  are  now  ready  to  conclude  that  heat  expands  solids, 
liquids,  and  gases,  and  that  cold  contracts  them.  What  is 
the  effect  of  heat  on  solids  and  liquids  as  they  change 
from  one  of  these  states  to  the  other  ? 

Fill  a  cup  level  full  of  melted  tallow  or  paraffin.  Set 
it  in  a  cool  place.  Examine  the  next  day.  Is  it  still  level 
full?  What  happened  to  the  paraffin  as  it  cooled  and 
solidified?  Which  occupies  the  greater  space,  liquid  or 
solid  paraffin?  Melted  lard,  or  solid  lard?  Which  is 
heavier,  a  cup  level  full  of  solid  paraffin  or  the  same  size 


SOME  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  ON  BODIES        243 

cup  level  full  of  melted  paraffin?  Will  a  piece  of  solid 
paraffin  dropped  into  a  cup  of  liquid  paraffin  sink  or  swim  ? 
Why? 

Do  all  substances  contract  as  they  solidify?  If  the 
weather  is  freezing  cold,  set  a  tin  cup  level  full  of  water  in 
a  saucer  and  set  both  out  of  doors  overnight.  Has  the 
water  contracted  or  expanded  as  it  cooled  and  solidified? 
Why  will  freezing  water  break  a  pitcher  or  glass  ?  Which 
is  heavier,  ice  or  water  ?  Put  a  piece  of  ice  into  a  cup  of 
water.  Does  it  sink  or  float  ? 

Water  then  differs  from  the  other  substances  studied 
in  that  it  expands  when  it  solidifies  or  freezes.  But  we 
found  by  means  of  a  previous  experiment  that  water  ex- 
pands when  heated,  and  contracts  when  cooled.  There 
must,,  therefore,  be  a  certain  temperature  at  which  water 
reaches  its  greatest  weight  or  density.  This  temperature 
is  4°  Centigrade  or  39.2°  Fahrenheit.  If  then  water  is 
heated  above  39.2°,  what  does  it  do?  If  it  is  cooled  below 
this  temperature  what  does  it  do?  If  you  had  a  cupful 
of  water  whose  temperature  was  70°  F.  and  you  heated  the 
water,  would  it  expand  or  contract  ?  What  if  you  cooled 
it?  At  what  temperature  would  it  stop  contracting  and 
begin  to  expand  again? 

All  liquids  do  not  act  as  water  does,  but  continue  to 
contract  until  they  are  solidified.  Can  you  think  of  any 
practical  use  that  is  made  of  this  fact  ?  The  thermometer 
is  constructed  upon  this  principle.  It  is  a  small  tube  filled 
with  mercury  or  alcohol.  When  the  temperature  is  warm 
what  does  the  mercury  do  ?  When  the  temperature  is  cool 
what  does  it  do  ?  By  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
mercury  we  are  able  to  measure  temperature. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

METHODS   OF  HEATING  BODIES 

How  are  bodies  heated?  Put  the  end  of  an  iron 
poker  into  a  bed  of  glowing  coals,  or  the  end  of  an  iron 
rod  in  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp.  Allow  it  to  remain 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Is  it  hot  at  any  point  except 
where  it  was  surrounded  by  the  fire?  How  far  from  this 
point  can  you  detect  heat  by  touching  it?  What  then 
must  have  taken  place  in  the  piece  of  iron?  The  heat 
must  have  traveled  slowly  along  from  the  part  that  was  in 
the  fire  to  the  other  parts.  When  heat  travels  from  one 
particle  of  a  body  to  another  in  this  way  we  say  that  the 
body  is  heated  by  conduction.  How  is  a  flatiron  heated  ? 
The  handle  of  a  skillet  or  stewpan? 

Will  heat  travel  by  conduction  equally  well  in  all  kinds 
of  material  ?  Procure  a  piece  of  a  small  branch  of  a  tree 
about  as  large  around  and  as  long  as  the  poker  or  iron  rod 
used  in  the  last  experiment.  Trim  oft  all  the  twigs.  Place 
this  and  the  poker  side  by  side  in  the  bed  of  coals  or  in  the 
flame  of  the  alcohol  lamp.  Leave  for  ten  minutes.  Is 
the  wood  hot  enough  to  burn  ?  Is  it  as  hot  two  inches  from 
the  heated  end  as  the  iron  was?  How  far  from  the  end 
can  you  detect  heat  in  each?  What  do  you  conclude  as 
to  the  power  wood  has  to  conduct  heat  compared  with  that 
of  iron?  Why  are  wooden  handles  placed  on  iron  and 
steel  pokers,  and  on  some  cooking  utensils  ? 

244 


METHODS  OF  HEATING  BODIES  245 


Place  your  hand  on  the  windowpane,  then  on  the  wood 
of  the  window  sash.  Which  conducts  heat  from  your 
hand  more  rapidly?  Since  these  are  side  by  side  in  the 
room  they  are  at  the  same  temperature.  The  glass  feels 
colder  because  it  takes  the  heat  out  of  your  hand  so  rapidly. 
Which  is  the  better  conductor  of  heat,  oilcloth  or  carpet  ? 
Why  are  woolen  clothes  warmer  than  cotton?  Have  the 
pupils  make  a  list  of  good  conductors  of  heat  and  of  poor 
conductors. 

While  many  solids  are  good  conductors  of  heat,  liquids 
and  gases  are  very  poor  conductors.  Air  is  among  the 
poorest  conductors  known.  Can  you  think  of  any  prac-. 
tical  application  of  this  fact?  Double  windows  make  a 
room  warmer,  not  so  much  because  of  the  extra  panes  of 
glass  but  because  of  the  layer  of  air  between  the  two  sashes. 

Since  air  is  such  a  poor  conductor,  do  you  think  it 
would  be  possible  ever  to  heat  a  room  comfortably  from  a 
stove  standing  in  one  corner  or  in  the  middle  of  the  room 
if  there  were  no  other  method  of  heating  ?  How  is  a  room 
heated  ? 

Light  a  piece  of  punk  or  a  candle.  A  piece  of  punk  is 
better  but  a  candle  will  do.  When  the  punk  is  smoking 
well,  hold  it  a  few  inches  from  the  stove,  first  on  one  side 
and  then  on  another.  Does  the  smoke  or  candle  flame  in- 
dicate any  movement  of  air  ?  How  is  the  air  moving  at  the 
sides  of  the  stove  ?  Above  the  stove  ?  Halfway  between 
the  stove  and  the* wall  of  the  room?  In  the  corner  of 
the  room  ?  Tie  the  punk  on  the  end  of  a  pointer  or  long 
stick  and  note  the  movement  of  the  air  near  the  ceiling  in 
different  parts  of  the  room.  Is  the  movement  of  the  colder 
air  toward  the  stove  or  away  from  it  ?  What  is  the  direc- 


246    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

tion  of  the  heated  air  near  the  stove  ?  Can  you  account  for 
these  movements  of  the  air  ?  You  have  already  seen  that 
heat  expands  air.  Is  heated  air  heavier  or  lighter  than 
colder  air  ?  What  does  the  cold  air  really  do  with  the  light 
air? 

Fill  a  tumbler  two  thirds  full  of  very  cold  water.  Heat 
some  water  almost  to  the  boiling  point  and  put  a  few  drops 
of  red  or  black  ink  in  it.  Now  make  a  paper  tube  by 
rolling  up  a  sheet  of  paper.  Hold  this  tube  in  the  middle 
of  the  glass  of  water  with  the  end  on  the  bottom  of  the  glass. 
Now  pour  some  of  the  warm  colored  water  into  the  tube. 
.  Watch  it  as  it  begins  to  come  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube. 
Slowly  lift  the  tube.  Why  does  the  colored  water  come  to 
the  top  of  the  glass  ?  Why  did  the  ice  come  to  the  top  of  the 
glass  of  water  in  a  former  experiment  ?  In  the  same  way 
that  the  ice  floats  in  the  water,  and  the  warm  water  floats 
on  the  cold  water,  so  the  warm  air  floats  on  heavier,  colder 
air.  Or  we  may  say  the  cold  air  buoys  up,  or  holds  up,  or 
even  pushes  up  the  lighter  air.  Can  air  ever  be  perfectly 
quiet  in  a  room  in  which  one  portion  is  a  little  warmer 
than  another  portion  ?  What  will  be  the  direction  of  this 
movement,  from  light  to  heavy  air,  or  from  heavy  to  light? 
With  a  little  thinking  the  pupils  will  see  that  the  move- 
ment must  always  be  from  the  heavy  toward  the  light. 

How  about  air  out  of  doors?  What  makes  it  move? 
When  there  is  a  difference  of  temperature  there  must  be 
difference  in  pressure,  hence  movement  of  air,  or  wind. 
Other  things  as  well  as  temperature  may  make  the  air 
lighter  in  some  places  than  in  others.  But,  whatever  the 
cause,  difference  of  pressure  results  in  movement. 

The  method  of  heating  by  which  the  heated  bodies 


METHODS   OF  HEATING  BODIES 


247 


move  about  from  one  place  to  another  is  called  heating  by 
convection  currents.  When  you  fill  a  teakettle  with  cold 
water,  and  set  it  on  the  stove,  will  there  be  any  movement 
of  the  water  while  it  is  heating  ?  Where  will  the  warmest 
water  always  be  found,  at  the  top  or  bottom  ?  Where  will 
the  convection  current  stop  ?  When  it  all  reaches  the  same 
temperature.  When  will  the  convection  current  of  air  in  a 
room  stop  ?  When  you  light  a  lamp,  what  is  the  direc- 
tion of  the  convection  current  which  carries  fresh  air  to  the 
flame?  Determine  this  by  holding  a  smoking  match  or 
piece  of  punk  below  the  burner  and  above  the  chimney. 

There  is  still  another  method  of  heating  bodies.  Hold 
the  end  of  the  poker  in  the  stove  till  it  is  quite  hot.  Take 
it  out  and  hold  your  hand  above  it.  Can  you  feel  any  heat 
coming  from  it?  Hold  your  hand  below  and  at  the  sides. 
Is  heat  coming  from  it  in  all  directions?  This  kind  of 
heat  is  called  radiant  heat.  It  is  the  heat  that  streams  off 
in  straight  lines  from  any  heated  body.  It  does  not  have 
to  have  air  to  travel  then.  It  is  the  kind  of  heat  that  we 
get  from  the  sun. 

Does  a  stove  radiate  any  heat?  You  have  only  to 
stand  in  front  of  a  hot  stove  to  feel  the  heat  striking  your 
face.  Set  a  chair  about  two  feet  from  a  hot  stove.  After 
half  an  hour  or  more  feel  the  chair.  How  has  it  been 
heated?  Chiefly  by  radiation  from  the  stove.  How  is 
the  schoolroom  heated  when  it  has  a  stove  in  it?  A  little 
discussion  will  show  that  it  is  heated  by  convection  currents 
and  radiation. 

When  the  rays  of  heat  strike  a  body,  what  becomes  of 
them  ?  What  did  the  chair  do  with  the  rays  from  the  hot 

stove  ?    It  absorbed  them,  or  at  least  part  of  them.     No 
17 


248    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

doubt  some  were  reflected  or  thrown  back.  Some  sub- 
stances allow  some  rays  of  heat  to  pass  through  them. 
This  is  true  of  glass.  The  rays  of  heat  from  the  sun  pass 
through  it.  What  use  do  florists  make  of  this  ? 

How  is  the  soil  or  ground  heated  ?  The  radiant  heat 
of  the  sun  strikes  it,  and  while  some  of  this  is  reflected  back 
into  the  air,  some  of  it  is  absorbed  into  the  top  layer  of  soil. 
Just  as  different  substances  differ  in  their  power  to  con- 
duct heat,  so  some  substances  absorb  heat  more  rapidly 
than  others. 

Lay  a  piece  of  black  cloth  on  the  surface  of  the  snow 
on  a  sunshiny  day.  Beside  it  lay  a  white  cloth.  Under 
which  does  more  snow  melt?  Which  absorbs  more  heat 
from  the  sun  ?  Which  is  warmer,  black  or  white  clothing  ? 
Which  will  get  warm  sooner  in  the  spring,  a  black  soil  or  a 
light-colored  one? 

How  does  a  body  that  is  heated  lose  its  heat  ?  Think 
again  of  the  hot-poker  experiment.  Did  it  get  cold  after 
you  held  it  awhile  in  the  air?  What  do  you  mean  by 
"getting  cold"?  It  gave  out,  or  radiated  heat.  How 
does  the  earth  cool  ?  Just  as  the  poker  did.  All  day  long 
while  the  sun  shines  the  earth  absorbs  heat.  All  night  long 
it  radiates  heat.  What  do  you  think  becomes  of  this  heat 
that  the  earth  gives  out?  Much  of  it  is  absorbed  by  the  air, 
or  rather  by  the  water  vapor  in  the  air,  and  thus  it  warms 
the  air.  In  fact,  the  air  is  warmed  much  more  by  the  heat 
from  the  earth  than  it  is  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
that  pass  through  it. 


CHAPTER    XXX 

GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS 

FROM  our  study  of  flowers  we  know  that  fertilization 
results  in  a  seed.  We  are  now  ready  to  find  out  what  a 
seed  is,  and  what  it  does. 

In  preparation  for  this  lesson  soak  a  number  of  large 
beans  in  water  overnight.  Keep  a  few  of  the  dry  beans 
for  comparison.  Remove  the  covering  from  a  soaked 
bean.  What  is  inside?  These  two  thickened  bodies 
are  called  seed  leaves.  The  short  rodlike  sprout  is 
called  the  hypocotyl.  What  do  you  find  at  the  inner 
end  of  the  hypocotyl?  This  little  bunch  of  leaves  is 
the  plumule.  These  three  things,  the  seed  leaves, 
the  hypocotyl,  and  the  plumule  comprise  the  little  plant- 
let  in  the  seed.  If  we  wish  to  be  exact  we  shall  call 
it  the  embryo.  Another  name  for  the  seed  leaves  is 
cotyledon.  A  plant  whose  embryo  has  two  cotyledons 
is  called  a  dicot.  How  does  the  soaked  seed  differ 
from  the  dry  one?  Can  you  find  the  place  where  the 
water  entered? 

What  does  each  part  of  the  embryo  produce?  To 
answer  this,  plant  some  of  the  beans  in  moist  sand  or  soil. 
These  may  be  planted  several  weeks  before  time  for  the 
lesson.  Do  the  seed  leaves  come  up  above  the  ground? 
What  becomes  of  them  ?  Why  do  they  slowly  shrivel  up  ? 
The  food  stored  in  them  is  being  used  up  in  feeding  the 

249 


250 


NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 


growing  plant.  What  does  the  hypocotyl  make?  The 
pupil  will  be  interested  to  see  that  the  lower  part  of  it 
makes  root,  while  the  upper  part  makes  stem.  What  has 
the  plumule  become?  Plant  some  pea  seeds.  Do  the 
seed  leaves  come  above  the  ground  ? 

Soak  some  corn  seeds  at  least  twenty-four  hours. 
Compare  the  dry  seed  with  the  soaked  one.  What  part 
of  the  seed  has  been  changed?  This  shows  where  the 
germ  or  embryo  is  located.  Remove  the  covering  from  the 
soaked  grain.  You  can  now  see  the  germ,  which  is  dirty 
white  in  color.  With  a  knife  dig  this  out  of  the  grain. 
You  will  find  that  instead  of  two  seed  leaves  or  cotyledon? 
this  has  but  one.  Plants  whose  seeds  have  but  one  cotyle- 
don are  called  monocots. 

Cut  the  embryo  open  to  find  the  rodlike  hypocotyl  and 
plumule.  Which  end  is  plumule?  Which  hypocotyl? 
To  determine  this,  place  a  few  soaked  grains  on  some  moist 
blotting  paper  or  sand  on  a  plate.  Turn  another  plate 
over  this.  Keep  moist.  In  a  week  the  seeds  will  be 
ready  to  answer  the  question. 

Is  there  much  of  the  grain  of  corn  left  after  the  embryo 
is  removed?  This  is  called  the  endosperm.  Wliat  is  it 
for?  Leave  this  as  a  problem  to  be  solved  later  if 
there  is  any  doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 

What  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  germination  of 
seeds?  For  the  following  experiments  beans,  peas,  or 
corn  are  good.  Soak  five  seeds,  place  them  on  moist 
blotting  paper  in  a  cup,  and  set  in  a  warm  place.  Treat 
five  other  seeds  in  exactly  the  same  way,  but  place  the  cup 
in  a  very  cool  place.  If  some  one  has  a  refrigerator,  have 
it  placed  in  this.  Be  sure  to  keep  both  moist  but  not  wet. 


GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS  251 

What  is  your  conclusion  as  to  the  effect  of  temperature  on 
the  germination  of  seeds? 

Arrange  two  other  cups  as  in  the  first  experiment,  but 
in  one  put  dry  blotting  paper  and  dry  seeds.  Place  these 
side  by  side  in  a  warm  place.  What  is  your  conclusion  as 
to  the  effect  moisture  has  on  germination  ? 

Arrange  two  cups  as  in  the  first  experiment.  Set  them 
side  by  side  in  a  warm  place.  Leave  one  open  to  the  light. 
Cover  the  other  so  that  the  seeds  will  be  in  total  darkness. 
Is  light  necessary  for  germination  ? 

Arrange  two  cups  as  above.  In  one  place  the  seeds  on 
moist  blotting  paper.  Fill  the  other  full  of  water.  What 
do  the  seeds  lack  that  are  covered  with  water  ?  Can  they 
germinate  without  air?  Test  this  in  another  way.  Pro- 
cure two  widermouthed  bottles  of  the  same  size.  Fill  each 
full  of  water  and  drop  some  dry  sand  into  the  water  till  it 
stands  an  inch  from  the  bottom  in  one  and  within  an  inch 
of  the  top  in  the  other.  Let  it  stand  till  the  sand  has 
settled,  then  pour  off  the  surplus  water  and  drop  into  each 
five  seeds.  Put  in  stoppers  and  cover  with  melted  paraf- 
fin or  vaseline  to  keep  out  air.  Which  bottle  contains 
more  air?  Note  carefully  to  see  if  the  amount  of  air 
affects  germination. 

Does  the  method  of  planting  seeds  have  any  effect  on 
germination  ? 

Plant  some  corn  in  a  pot  or  can  in  very  loose  soil. 
Plant  the  same  number  of  grain  in  another  can,  but  in  this 
one  firm  the  soil  down  on  the  seeds  with  your  hand. 
Watch  carefully  to  see  which  germinates  first.  Place  some 
moist  soil  one  half  inch  deep  in  a  two-quart  Mason  jar  or 
a  deep  candy  jar ;  close  to  the  glass  on  one  side  plant  a  grain 


252          NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

of  corn,  and  on  the  other  side  a  bean.  Fill  in  an  inch  and 
a  half  or  two  inches  more  soil,  and  plant  another  seed  of 
each  kind.  Continue  this  until  the  last  are  planted  within 
an  inch  of  the  top.  Watch  to  see  whether  depth  of  plant- 
ing affects  germination  and  subsequent  growth  of  the  plant. 

Plant  some  radish  or  other  small  seeds  three  inches 
deep  in  tumblers.  At  the  same  time  plant  others  at  varying 
depths,  the  last  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Note  effect  on  growth.  A  good  rule  to  follow  in  planting 
most  small  seeds  is  to  cover  them  with  soil  about  four  times 
as  deep  as  the  seeds  are  wide. 

Is  there  anything  else  worth  considering  in  planting 
seeds  ?  In  putting  in  a  farm  crop  or  garden  plant  one  of 
the  most  important  things  is  to  be  sure  that  the  seeds 
planted  will  germinate.  Sometimes  all  of  the  conditions 
are  right  but  there  is  something  wrong  with  the  seeds 
themselves.  We  can  never  be  perfectly  certain  that  a  seed 
has  the  power  to  awaken  into  a  growing  plant  until  we  try 
it.  To  make  then  a  germination  test  of  grains  that  are  to 
be  planted  is  very  important. 

Germination  test  of  corn.  From  the  fall  study  desir- 
able ears  of  corn  have  been  selected  from  desirable  stalks. 
Now  we  must  see  whether  or  not  these  will  grow.  Six 
grains  from  each  ear  should  be  chosen  for  the  test,  two  of 
these  near  the  butt,  two  near  the  middle,  and  two  toward 
the  tip.  A  simple  method  of  testing  is  to  put  about  three 
inches  of  moist  sand  in  the  bottom  of  a  box.  Rule  this  off 
into  squares,  two  and  one  half  inches  each  way.  Place 
six  grains  on  each  square  with  the  germ  side  up.  Number 
the  squares  and  ears  to  correspond.  Place  a  sheet  of 
muslin  or  cheese  cloth  over  the  grains,  cover  with  sand, 


GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS  253 


keep  moist  and  warm.  When  the  grains  have  sprouted 
examine  carefully  and  discard  all  ears  whose  six  grains  do 
not  all  show  vigorous  germination.  The  test  may  be 
made  by  putting  moist  sand  or  soil  in  a  dinner  plate, 
dividing  it  into  sections  and  planting  the  grains  in  these. 
Turn  another  plate  over  the  top  to  keep  in  the  moisture. 
Encourage  the  children  to  make  a  germination  test  for  the 
corn  which  is  to  be  planted  at  home. 

Home  and  Vacation  Experiments 

1 .  Plant  two  hills  six  inches  deep,  two  four  inches,  two 
two  inches.     Give  all  the  same  sort  of  cultivation  and  note 
results. 

2.  Dig  up  a  few  plants  that  have  been  growing  one 
week.     Examine  the  grain  to  see  if  any  changes  are  shown. 
Repeat  with  other  plants  at  the  end  of  two  weeks'  growth, 
and  again  after  three  and  four  weeks.     Compare  condi- 
tions.   What  has  become  of  all  the  food  material  that  was 
in  the  grain? 

3.  Cultivate  one  row  of  corn  deep,  and  close  to  the 
hill;    another   shallow,  early  in  the  season,  and  deeper 
later  in   the   season.     This   makes   a   good   soil   mulch 
which   keeps   the  moisture  in  the  ground.      Cultivation 
also  destroys  weeds,  and  loosens  the  soil  so  the  air  may 
reach  the  roots. 

4.  Secure  three  or  four  varieties  of  corn  and  distribute 
different  kinds  to  different  pupils  to  plant  half  a  dozen  or 
more  hills;  cultivate  well  and  compare  yields. 

5.  Plant  seeds  obtained  from  stalk  bearing  two  ears 
and  see  if  you  can  produce  many  stalks  with  two  ears. 


254          NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

6.  Plant  one  stalk  of  corn  alone  in  the  middle  of  the 
garden  in  which  no  other  corn  is  grown. 

7.  Plant  two  hills  of  white  corn  and  two  of  yellow  side 
by  side. 

8.  Cover  half  a  dozen  ears  with  paper  bags  just  at  the 
time  the  silk  begins  to  grow,     (a)  Pollinate  four  ears  by 
hand,  using  pollen  from  same  stalk;  then  cover  with  bags  to 
keep  other  pollen  from  falling  on  silks.     To  do  this  collect 
some  pollen  in  a  saucer  and  gently  rub  the  silk  in  this.     (6) 
Perform  the  same  experiment  with  four  other  ears,  but 
use  pollen  from  other  stalks,  thus  cross  pollinating  them. 
Detassel  these  stalks  to  make  sure  that  there  will  be  no 
self-pollination.     Compare  results  of  (a)  and  (6). 

9.  Plant  four  hills  forty-four  inches   apart  with  five 
grains  in  each,  four  hills  with  four  grains,  and  four  with 
three  grains.     Compare  numbers  of  good  ears  produced  in 
each  lot.     Compare  weight  of  corn  raised  in  each  lot. 

10.  Keep  a  record  of  the  time  of  planting,  time  of 
blossoming,  time  of  maturing.     Note  effect  of  dry  weather 
on  corn;  of  wet  weather.     Keep  a  list  of  insects  you  may 
find  on  your  corn  plants. 

Farmers*  Bulletin:   The  Germination  0}  Seed  Corn, 
No.  253. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 

STUDY  OF  OATS 

General  Problems. — What  varieties  of  oats,  and  what 
methods  of  culture  seem  best  adapted  to  soil  and  weather 
conditions  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  ? 

Begin  the  work  with  a  study  of  the  grain.  Note  its 
shape,  size,  and  color.  Compare  different  varieties  in 
regard  to  these  points.  Remove  the  hull  and  compare 
the  grain  with  those  of  wheat  and  rye. 

Ask  each  pupil  to  bring  in  a  handful  of  seed  oats,  or 
oats  from  the  granary.  Test  these  for  purity.  To  do  this 
have  the  pupils  spread  their  samples  on  a  sheet  of  paper 
or  on  the  table.  Look  closely  for  foreign  bodies  of  any 
sort.  Are  there  any  weed  seeds?  Can  you  identify  any 
of  these?  Put  all  the  weed  seeds  and  trash  in  one  pile  and 
all  the  oats  in  another.  About  what  per  cent  of  your 
sample  is  oats  ?  If  you  wish  to  be  exact,  weigh  the  sample 
before  spreading  it  out,  then  weigh  the  pure  oats  and  com- 
pute per  cent,  of  purity. 

What  other  characteristic  do  you  want  your  seed  oats 
to  have?  The  most  important  quality  of  all  is  their 
power  to  germinate.  To  test  this  place  some  moist  sand 
or  soil  in  a  dinner  plate,  or  box.  Select  one  hundred  seeds 
from  your  sample.  Scatter  these  over  the  sand,  not  allow- 
ing any  two  to  touch  each  other.  With  your  finger  press 
gently  each  grain  so  that  it  \vill  rest  firmly  in  the  sand,  but 

255 


256          NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

not  be  covered.  Turn  another  plate  over  this  one,  set  in  a 
warm  place  and  keep  the  sand  moist. 

Watch  for  the  germination  of  the  seeds.  How  long 
after  planting  before  the  first  sprout  appears  ?  Allow  the 
grains  to  remain  at  least  one  day  after  germination  begins, 
then  remove  the  sprouted  grains  daily  till  all  have  sprouted 
that  will.  By  counting  the  grains  that  are  left  you  will  be 
able  to  determine  the  per  cent  that  germinated.  If  you 
do  not  wish  to  take  the  time  to  remove  the  sprouted  grain 
each  day,  allow  the  plate  to  stand  three  or  four  days  after 
the  grains  have  begun  to  sprout,  then  remove  those  that 
have  failed  to  germinate  and  compute  your  per  cent  of 
•germination  as  before.  Did  all  the  grains  show  equal 
vigor  of  germination?  Would  you  expect  to  get  a  good 
stand  of  oats  from  seed  whose  germination  test  was  not 
higher  than  sixty  or  seventy  per  cent  ? 

When  should  oats  be  planted?  Let  the  class  discuss 
this  question,  drawing  upon  their  experiences  for  opinions. 
Perhaps  a  good  rule  to  follow  is,  Sow  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work  well. 

What  are  the  different  methods  of  sowing  oats  ?  What 
is  the  advantage  of  using  the  drill  over  sowing  broadcast  ? 
If  you  have  a  school  garden  measure  off  two  plots  exactly 
the  same  size.  Measure  or  weigh  enough  oats  to  sow  one 
in  drills.  Sow  exactly  the  same  amount  on  the  other, 
broadcast.  At  the  harvesting  determine  which  gives  the 
better  yield.  If  this  cannot  be  done  in  the  school  garden, 
encourage  some  of  the  boys  to  try  the  experiment  at  home. 

How  many  bushels  of  oats  does  it  take  to  sow  an  acre  ? 
You  will  probably  find  differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to 
this,  as  some  farmers  believe  in  sowing  the  grain  thicker 


STUDY  OF   OATS 


257 


than  others.  The  average,  however,  is  from  three  to 
three  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre.  Does  it  take  more  or 
less  wheat  to  plant  an  acre  ?  It  takes  from  one  and  a  half 
to  two  bushels  of  wheat. 

How  deep  should  oats  be  planted  ?  An  inch  of  soil  is 
sufficient,  but  they  may  be  covered  deeper  than  this  and 
still  do  well.  An  experiment  may  be  tried  either  in  the 
school  garden  or  at  home  to  determine  what  effect  depth 
of  planting  has  on  the  development  of  the  plant.  Arrange 
six  drills  side  by  side  varying  from  one  to  six  inches  in 
depth.  Sow  the  same  amount  of  seed  in  each  drill;  cover 
and  watch  results.  Is  there  any  apparent  difference  in  the 
rapidity  of  growth  ?  Are  the  heads  equally  well  developed  ? 
Is  there  any  difference  in  the  amount  of  grain  produced? 

Watch  the  development  of  the  plant.  How  long  after 
planting  till  the  plants  appear  above  the  ground?  How 
low  a  temperature  can  these  young  plants  stand?  Does 
a,  frost  kill  them  ?  Note  the  habits  of  growth  of  the  plant  ? 
Does  one  root  send  up  more  than  one  stem  ? 

The  following  questions  may  be  given  to  the  pupils  to 
work  out  during  vacation.  When  does  the  plant  begin  to 
send  up  the  flowering  stem  ?  Wtrere  is  this  stem  situated  ? 
How  tall  does  it  grow  ?  Measure  several  and  get  the  aver- 
age. Are  the  oats  throughout  the  field  even  as  to  height  ? 
[f  there  are  spots  where  they  are  much  taller  or  lower  than 
the  average,  see  if  you  can  account  for  them. 

Does  the  flowering  stem  branch?  This  kind  of  a 
branching  flower  cluster  is  called  a  panicle.  If  the 
branches  spread  equally  on  all  sides  the  oats  are  called 
spreading  or  panicled.  If  the  branches  are  more  numerous 
on  one  side  than  on  the  other  they  are  called  side  oats. 


258          NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

Decide  what  kind  you  have  growing  in  your  field.  .  Look 
at  one  of  the  small  flowers.  Can  you  find  stamens  and 
pistil? 

How  long  does  it  take  the  grain  to  form  after  the 
flowers  have  opened?  When  are  the  grains  ripe?  What 
change  in  color  takes  place  as  the  grain  ripens?  What 
part  of  the  plant  begins  to  change  color  first  ?  When  the 
leaves  have  turned  yellow  they  can  no  longer  do  their 
work.  Which  leaves  continue  their  work  longest?  How 
many  good  grains  in  one  head  of  oats  ?  Do  you  find  any 
heads  with  smut  on  them  ?  How  has  the  smut  affected  the 
development  of  the  grain  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  smut 
spores?  Can  you  determine  in  any  way  what  pecentage? 
of  the  field  is  affected  with  smut  ?  Count  the  number  of 
blasted  heads  and  also  the  good  heads  in  ten  hills  in  one  spot 
in  the  field.  Do  the  same  in  five  other  spots  and  com- 
pute the  per  cent.  Do  you  find  any  spots  of  rust  on  the 
leaves?  Does  this  seem  in  any  way  to  affect  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plant? 

How  many  different  kinds  of  weeds  are  there  in,  the  oats 
field?  Can  you  determine  which  are  annual  and  which 
perennial  ?  Are  there  any  that  ripen  their  seeds  about  the 
time  the  oats  are  harvested?  Do  you  find  any  weeds  just 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground  when  the  oats  are  cut? 
Do  these  develop  rapidly  after  harvest? 

Can  you  find  any  insects  on  the  oats?  Look  for  the 
green  aphids.  Are  there  any  ladybug  beetles  and  their 
young  feeding  upon  the  aphids? 


CHAPTER    XXXII 

PLANT  PRODUCTS 

THE  purpose  of  this  lesson  on  plant  products  is  to 
lead  the  pupils  to  discover  the  various  substances  found  in 
plants  and  to  prepare  them  for  the  lessons  in  soil  chemistry 
which  follow. 

Have  the  pupils  scrape  as  fine  as  possible  one  or  two 
potatoes.  Place  the  scrapings  in  a  tumbler  of  water,  stir 
thoroughly  two  or  three  times,  and  set  aside  to  settle. 
Examine  the  next  day.  What  do  you  find  in  the  bottom 
of  the  tumbler  ?  Drain  off  all  the  water  and  potato  pulp, 
leaving  nothing  but  the  starchy-looking  mass  in  the  bottom. 
Boil  some  water  over  the  alcohol  lamp  and  pour  a  little  of 
this  into  the  tumbler,  stirring  until  the  starch  thickens. 
This  resembles  ordinary  starch  used  for  clothes.  There 
is  a  chemical  test,  however,  that  will  prove  beyond  any 
doubt  that  this  is  starch.  Place  a  small  quantity  of  the 
starch  on  a  plate  or  saucer,  and  then  put  two  or  three  drops 
of  iodine  on  it.  Tincture  of  iodine  that  may  be  bought 
at  any  drug  store  will  serve  the  purpose.  This  may  be 
diluted  with  water.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  iodine  on  this 
substance?  The  blue  color  indicates  the  presence  of  the 
starch.  The  darker  the  blue  the  more  starch  is  present. 
Sometimes  it  is  almost  black.  Place  a  drop  of  iodine  on  a 
slice  of  potato.  Does  it  show  as  much  starch  as  that 
which  was  cooked?  The  reason  the  latter  shows  more 

259 


260    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

starch  is  that  the  boiling  water  causes  the  walls  of  the  starch 
granules  to  burst  open  and  the  iodine  can  act  more  readily 
upon  the  starch.  Pour  a  little  boiling  water  over  some 
flour  and  test  it  for  starch;  over  cornmeal,  oatmeal;  corn- 
starch,  etc. 

Soak  some  grains  of  corn  for  forty-eight  hours,  or  half 
an  hour  in  hot  water.  Each  pupil  should  have  at  least  two 
grains.  At  the  pointed  end  of  the  grain  find  the  tip  cap. 
Remove  this.  The  cap  may  be  lacking  on  some  grains, 
having  been  left  on  the  cob.  With  a  knife  or  a  pin  remove 
the  hull.  You  will  see  that  the  grain  is  covered  with  a  thin, 
smooth  material  that  with  care  may  be  scraped  off  with 
a  knife.  This  is  called  horny  gluten.  Now  dig  out  the 
germ  or  embryo.  (See  lesson  on  germination  of  seeds.) 
Split  open  the  remaining  part  of  the  grain.  How  many 
kinds  of  material  are  left?  Place  the  white,  granular 
material  found  near  the  top  of  the  grain  in  a  pile.  Add  to 
it  the  same  kind  of  material  found  near  the  tip.  Put  the 
hard,  solid-looking  substance  in  another  pile.  You  now 
have  six  different  substances  found  in  your  grain  of  corn. 
Test  each  of  these  with  iodine,  just  as  you  did  your  potato 
starch  and  flour.  It  is  better  to  crush  them  as  much  as 
possible  before  putting  on  the  hot  water.  What  part 
shows  the  most  starch  ?  It  is  probable  that  the  soft  granu- 
lar part  will  turn  the  darkest  blue.  This  part  is  known  as 
crown  starch.  The  solid,  hard  part,  if  thoroughly  boiled, 
will  show  some  starch.  This  is  called  horny  starch. 
What  parts  do  not  contain  any  starch?  This  means  of 
course  that  there  must  be  some  substances  other  than  starch 
in  the  grain  of  corn. 

Remove  some  fresh  embryos  from  soaked  grains  and 


PLANT  PRODUCTS  261 

crush  them  on  a  sheet  of  white  writing  paper.  Hold  the 
paper  between  you  and  the  light.  What  does  this  show  ? 
The  grease  spot  indicates  the  presence  of  oil  or  fat.  Test 
other  seeds  in  this  way  for  oil,  such  as  sunflower,  squash 
or  pumpkin,  flaxseed,  etc.  Have  some  of  the  pupils  put  a 
small  pinch  of  each  of  the  following  on  a  sheet  of  paper: 
flour,  cornmeal,  any  cereal  breakfast  food,  buckwheat,  and 
ground  coffee.  Place  the  sheet  in  a  hot  oven  and  keep  it 
there  several  minutes.  Now  see  whether  the  paper  shows 
that  any  of  these  things  contain  oil.  Have  the  pupils  name 
some  plants  whose  seeds  contain  so  much  oil  that  it  is 
extracted  and  used  for  various  commercial  purposes. 

Besides  starch  and  oil,  plants  contain  other  substances 
known  as  proteids.  In  your  physiology  you  may  have 
learned  of  albumen  as  a  kind  of  proteid.  One  of  the 
purest  types  of  proteid  known  is  the  white  of  egg.  A 
chemical  test  may  be  made  for  proteid  as  follows:  Dissolve 
in  a  two-ounce  bottle  of  warm  water  about  one  fifth  of  an 
ounce  of  caustic  potash  (potassium  hydroxide).  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  potash  touch  the  hands  or 
clothing.  Make  another  solution  by  dissolving  a  piece  of 
copper  sulphate  (bluestone)  about  as  large  as  a  lima  bean 
in  a  two-ounce  bottle  of  warm  water.  Place  a  small 
quantity  of  the  white  of  an  egg  on  a  plate  or  saucer  and  pour 
a  little  of  the  first  solution  over  it.  Warm  the  plate  gently. 
Be  careful  not  to  cook  the  egg.  Now  add  a  little  of  the 
second  solution  and  stir  with  a  splinter.  What  change  of 
color  do  you  note  ?  The  beautiful  violet  purple  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  proteid. 

Soak  some  beans  overnight.  After  removing  the  skins, 
crush  the  beans  and  place  on  a  warm  plate.  Test  for 


262          NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

proteid  as  you  did  the  egg.  You  may  have  to  wait  several 
hours  before  you  can  be  sure  of  a  change  of  color.  A  good 
plan  is  to  start  a  number  of  tests  on  a  plate  and  set  away 
till  the  next  day.  Test  different  parts  of  the  corn  grain, 
squash  seed,  etc.  What  part  of  the  corn  grain  shows  the 
most  proteid?  What  part  the  least? 

There  is  another  substance  in  plants  for  which  you  do 
not  need  to  make  a  chemical  test.  You  have  been  testing 
it  all  your  life.  Why  does  a  sweet  potato  taste  sweeter 
than  the  common  white  potato?  Name  other  plants  that 
have  sugar  in  them.  From  what  plants  is  the  sugar  of 
commerce  obtained  ?  All  starch  found  in  plants  is  changed 
into  sugar  before  it  can  be  absorbed  by  plants  or  animals, 
for  starch  is  insoluble,  and  all  substances  absorbed  by 
living  bodies  must  be  dissolved. 

Is  there  any  part  of  your  corn  grain  that  does  not  seem 
to  have  any  of  these  substances  named  above?  The  hulls 
are  made  up  mostly  of  a  substance  called  cellulose.  Cellu- 
lose is  found  in  all  plants,  and  is  the  material  that  gives 
strength  and  firmness  to  the  different  parts.  It  is  found 
in  the  cell  walls,  in  fibers  of  stems,  roots,  and  leaves,  as  well 
as  in  fruits  and  seeds.  It  is  harder  and  thicker  in  some 
parts  of  plants  than  others,  as  in  stems,  husks,  and  roots. 
The  fibers  of  cotton,  hemp,  and  flax  are  made  chiefly  of 
cellulose.  Soak  some  common  newspaper  or  writing  paper 
in  water  till  all  the  sizing  is  washed  out.  The  pulp  which 
remains  is  almost  pure  cellulose. 

Cellulose  may  be  obtained  from  plants  by  the  following 
process :  Dry  thoroughly  some  stalks  of  corn  or  sunflower. 
Pulverize  as  fine  as  possible.  Cover  with  water  in  which 
are  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid,  and  boil 


PLANT  PRODUCTS  263 

half  an  hour  or  more.  Now  cover  with  water  in  which 
you  have  put  a  little  potash,  and  boil  again.  Pour  off  the 
liquid.  The  pulp  that  is  left  is  chiefly  cellulose. 

One  more  substance  may  be  found  in  plants.  Here  is 
a  green  leaf.  Just  how  much  starch,  sugar,  oil,  and  pro- 
teid  it  may  have  in  it  we  do  not  know.  But  we  do  know 
that  it  has  something  besides  these.  Place  the  leaf  in  a 
bottle  or  tumbler  and  pour  a  little  clear  alcohol  over  it. 
Cover  the  bottle  or  tumbler  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of 
the  alcohol.  Examine  the  next  day.  What  has  hap- 
pened? The  green  coloring  matter  that  the  alcohol  has 
dissolved  out  of  the  leaf  is  chlorophyll.  We  shall  find  out 
something  about  the  value  of  this  substance  in  a  later 
lesson. 

Where  do  the  plants  get  all  of  these  substances?  A 
discussion  of  this  question  will  bring  out  the  fact  that 
plants  manufacture  them.  They  may  then  be  called  plant 
products.  It  will  add  interest  to  the  work  to  have  the 
pupils  make  a  collection  of  these  plant  products.  These 
should  be  put  into  bottles  and  carefully  labeled.  The 
following  are  the  products  most  available  for  this  purpose: 

Starch — from  corn  or  potatoes. 

Sugar — ordinary  cane  sugar. 

Oil — linseed,  cottonseed,  corn. 

Proteid — corn,  beans,  peas. 

Fiber — cotton,  flax. 

Cellulose — prepare  from  stems  or  hulls  of  corn. 

Chlorophyll — obtain  by  placing  green  leaves  in  alcohol. 


18 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 

SIMPLE  EXPERIMENTS   IN   SOIL  CHEMISTRY 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  it  was  brought  out  that  plants 
manufacture  certain  plant  products.  Now,  if  plants  are 
factories,  what  equipment  must  they  have?  Machinery, 
power,  and  raw  material  out  of  which  to  make  the  starch, 
sugar,  etc.  What  is  the  source  of  this  raw  material  ? 

By  discussion  it  may  be  brought  out  that  the  environ- 
ment of  the  plant  is  air,  soil,  and  soil  water;  hence  these 
are  the  only  available  sources  from  which  the  plant  may 
obtain  raw  material  to  make  the  plant  products. 

Just  how  the  plants  procure  the  raw  material,  and  how 
they  make  the  foods,  we  shall  take  up  for  consideration  in 
some  later  lessons.  At  present  we  are  concerned  chiefly 
in  finding  out  what  the  materials  are  that  the  plants  use  in 
making  foods  and  plant  tissues. 

We  know  that  we  cannot  find  starch  as  starch  in  the 
environment  of  the  plants.  We  also  know  that  starch  is 
made  up  of  several  substances  which  are  united  to  form 
what  we  call  a  chemical  compound. 

What  is  a  chemical  compound? 

Here  is  some  table  salt  which  is  a  good  illustration  of  a 
compound.  It  is  made  by  the  chemical  union  of  two  things, 
sodium  and  chlorine.  Let  us  look  at  these.  Do  either 
of  them  resemble  salt?  Yet  chemists  can  separate  salt 

264 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  SOIL  CHEMISTRY          265 

into  these  two  things;  although  they  cannot  separate 
sodium  and  chlorine  into  other  substances,  and  so  they  are 
called  elements. 

What  then  is  an  element?  There  are  only  between 
seventy  and  eighty  elements  known.  Everything  else  in 
the  world  is  in  the  form  of  a  compound.  How  are  com- 
pounds formed?  By  the  chemical  union  of  two  or  more 
elements.  Just  to  mix  the  elements  together  will  not  neces- 
sarily make  a  compound.  They  must  unite  in  definite 
proportions.  In  order  to  know  what  we  mean  by  this  you 
must  know  that  everything  in  the  world  is  made  up  of  very 
small  particles  called  molecules.  The  molecules  are  so 
small  that  they  cannot  be  seen  by  the  most  powerful 
microscope.  Each  molecule  is  made  up  of  still  smaller 
particles  called  atoms.  Now  when  a  chemical  union  takes 
place  a  certain  number  of  atoms  of  one  element  unite  with 
a  certain  number  of  atoms  of  another  element  or  elements 
and  make  a  molecule  of  a  new  substance  which  is  a  com- 
pound. We  know  that  water  is  a  chemical  compound 
made  by  the  union  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Two  atoms 
of  hydrogen  unite  with  one  atom  of  oxygen  to  make  water, 
hence  we  use  the  symbol  H2O  to  stand  for  water. 

Chemical  unions  are  taking  place  constantly  in  the 
world  of  nature. 

Experiment. — Moisten  a  piece  of  iron  (a  nail  or  iron 
filings) ;  place  the  wet  iron  on  a  piece  of  paper  exposed  to 
the  air.  Examine  next  day.  What  has  happened?  A 
chemical  combination  has  taken  place  between  the  iron 
and  the  oxygen  in  the  air.  In  common  terms  we  call  this 
rust.  It  is  iron  oxide,  or  if  hydrogen  has  also  combined 
with  the  iron  and  oxygen,  which  is  probable,  it  is  iron 


266          NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

hydroxide.  What  happens  to  iron  of  any  sort  when  left 
exposed  to  the  air? 

Another  simple  experiment  to  show  a  chemical  com- 
bination may  be  performed.  Place  a  small  piece  of  sulphur 
on  a  bright  silver  coin  and  set  the  sulphur  on  fire.  When 
it  has  burned  look  at  the  coin.  What  has  taken  place? 
The  dark  substance  is  silver  sulphide.  A  chemical  com- 
bination has  taken  place  between  the  sulphur  and  the 
silver.  Was  all  the  sulphur  used  in  making  the  silver 
sulphide  ?  What  did  you  see  taking  place  above  the  coin  ? 
Was  anything  uniting  with  the  sulphur  to  form  the  blue 
flame  or  smoke  ?  This  compound  is  sulphur  dioxide.  It 
is  a  gas,  and  escaped  into  the  air.  How  did  you  know  it 
was  in  the  air? 

Now  in  plants  chemical  combinations  take  place  which 
result  in  the  plant  products  we  have  found.  Starch  is  a 
combination  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon.  The 
symbols  for  these  are  O,  H,  and  C  respectively.  Proteid 
is  a  combination  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  with 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  often  other  elements. 

Plants  not  only  succeed  in  uniting  elements  into  com- 
pounds, but  in  some  cases  they  separate  a  compound  into 
its  elements  and  use  the  elements  to  make  a  new  compound. 

We  may  succeed  in  separating  some  compounds  into 
their  elements. 

Experiment. — Heat  in  a  test  tube  a  level  teaspoonful  of 
potassium  chlorate  mixed  with  the  same  amount  of  man- 
ganese dioxide.  After  a  few  minutes  hold  a  lighted  splinter 
in  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  What  happens?  Is  there 
something  in  the  tube  that  was  not  there  at  the  beginning, 
even  though  you  cannot  see  it  ?  The  heat  has  caused  the 


EXPERIMENTS  IN   SOIL   CHEMISTRY          267 

potassium  chlorate  to  give  out  some  of  the  oxygen  that 
was  in  the  combination  in  it.  A  good  test  for  oxygen  is  to 
hold  a  glowing  splinter  in  it,  and  the  splinter  will  burn  very 
brightly. 

Where  does  the  plant  get  the  oxygen  that  it  uses  in 
making  starch  ?  It  probably  gets  it,  as  well  as  the  hydrogen, 
from  the  water  which  it  gets  out  of  the  soil.  What  must 
first  be  done  with  the  water  ? 

If  you  wish  to  obtain  hydrogen,  place  in  a  glass  jar  or 
wide-mouthed  bottle  (an  olive  or  pickle  bottle  will  serve 
the  purpose)  a  number  of  small  pieces  of  zinc,  and  cover 
with  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water;  about  a  sixth 
or  seventh  as  much  acid  as  water.  The  bubbles  that  are 
given  off  are  hydrogen.  Be  very  careful  not  to  allow  the 
sulphuric  acid  to  touch  your  hands  or  clothing.  Place  in 
the  bottle  in  which  the  hydrogen  is  being  generated  a 
stopper  through  which  a  glass  tube  passes  and  extends  two 
or  three  inches  above.  After  the  hydrogen  has  been  com- 
ing off  for  several  minutes  apply  a  lighted  match  to  the  end 
of  the  tube.  What  happens?  The  hydrogen  gas  burns. 
This  is  a  good  test  for  hydrogen.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  apply  the  match  until  all  the  air  is  out  of  the 
bottle. 

Where  does  the  plant  get  the  carbon?  This  is  ob- 
tained from  the  air.  How  do  we  know  that  plants  contain 
carbon  ?  Place  a  small  piece  of  wood  (hard  wood  is  best) 
on  a  piece  of  wire  screen,  or  on  a  tin  pie  plate,  or  in  a  test 
tube.  Heat  by  holding  the  flame  of  the  alcohol  lamp  under 
it.  When  it  stops  smoking  note  what  is  left.  This  char- 
coal is  mostly  carbon.  What  is  its  color  ?  Think  of  other 
plants  which  you  have  seen  heated  or  partially  burned, 


268    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

such  as  leaves,  grass,  corn  stalks,  brush.  Do  you  re- 
member seeing  any  charcoal  or  carbon  ? 

We  said  the  plant  gets  its  carbon  out  of  the  air.  Do 
you  think  it  gets  it  in  the  form  in  which  you  see  the  carbon 
in  the  charcoal?  It  gets  it  in  the  form  of  a  gas  called 
carbon  dioxide,  CO2.  Is  this  gas  an  element  or  a  com- 
pound? How  do  you  know?  We  may  make  some 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  following  manner.  Place  a  heaping 
teaspoonful  of  soda  in  a  glass  half  full  of  water  and  add  to 
this  a  few  teaspoonfuls  of  vinegar.  Stir  and  see  what 
happens.  This  gas  that  bubbles  up  is  carbon  dioxide. 
What  does  the  CO2  tell  you  about  a  molecule  of  the 
gas?  Test  for  carbon  dioxide  with  limewater.  Lime- 
water  may  be  made  by  placing  a  piece  of  unslaked  lime  in 
a  bottle,  and  filling  the  bottle  nearly  full  of  water.  Shake 
well,  and  set  aside  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  clear  water 
on  top  is  limewater. 

Pour  a  little  of  the  carbon  dioxide  from  the  glass,  while 
the  bubbles  are  coming  off  most  rapidly,  into  a  glass  which 
contains  a  little  limewater.  Shake  well.  What  change 
has  taken  place?  The  milky  limewater  is  a  sure  test  for 
carbon  dioxide.  Test  your  breath  for  carbon  dioxide  by 
breathing  through  a  straw  or  tube  into  a  glass  containing  a 
little  limewater. 

We  have  already  discussed  three  elements  that  plants 
use  in  manufacturing  food.  What  are  the  other  things 
that  are  needed  ?  The  following  is  a  list  of  elements  that 
plants  need:  Oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  iron,  magnesium,  potassium  (usually  in  the 
form  of  potash),  sodium,  chlorine,  silicon,  calcium.  Many 
plants  can  get  along  without  sodium,  chlorine,  and  silicon. 


EXPERIMENTS   IN  SOIL   CHEMISTRY          269 


How  can  we  show  that  plants  contain  potash  ?  Place 
some  unbleached  wood  ashes  in  a  dish  or  pan  and  cover 
with  water.  Stir  thoroughly  several  times.  Allow  the 
mixture  to  settle,  then  pour  off  the  water.  Place  some  of 
the  water  in  a  cup  and  boil  till  all  the  water  is  eva*porated. 
The  yellow  ash  substance  that  is  left  is  potash.  Test  it  by 
moistening  and  rubbing  between  your  thumb  and  finger. 
It  feels  like  lye  or  soap. 

We  have  seen  that  the  first  three  elements  named  above 
are  supplied  to  the  plant  from  the  water  and  air.  Then  all 
the  rest  must  be  obtained  from  the  soil. 

At  this  point  it  will  be  worth  while  to  take  at  least  one 
recitation  period  to  discuss  what  soil  is,  its  origin,  and  the 
agents  that  have  aided  and  are  aiding  in  making  it. 

How  many  of  the  things  furnished  the  plants  by  the  soil 
may  be  found  as  elements  in  the  soil  ?  Can  you  find  sul- 
phur or  phosphorus  as  such  in  the  soil?  (Sulphur  may 
be  found  as  an  element  in  volcanic  regions.)  If  not,  then 
in  what  form  must  they  exist? 

Examine  some  sulphur,  and  then  some  calcium  sulphate 
or  plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  in  this  form  that  much  of  the 
sulphur  that  is  used  by  plants  exists  in  the  soil.  Sulphuric 
acid  is  also  found  in  many  soils. 

The  compounds  that  exist  in  the  soil  may  be  acids, 
alkalies,  or  salts.  We  may  make  some  simple  tests  to 
determine  which  one  of  these  three,  any  chemical  com- 
pound is. 

Test  for  Acid. — Litmus  paper  is  one  of  the  simplest 
tests.  Place  a  small  piece  of  litmus  paper  in  weak  vinegar. 
What  color  does  the  paper  take  on  ?  Put  a  few  drops  of 
sulphuric  acid  in  half  a  glass  of  water  and  test  with  the 


270    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

paper.  What  is  your  conclusion  as  to  the  effect  of  an  acid 
on  litmus  paper? 

Test  for  Alkali. — Place  a  piece  of  the  red  litmus  paper 
that  you  used  in  an  acid  in  a  weak  solution  of  potash  and 
water,  ^hat  change  in  color  takes  place?  From  this 
you  may  draw  the  conclusion  that  litmus  paper  is  red  in 
acids  and  blue  in  alkalies.  Try  other  substances:  sweet 
milk,  sour  milk,  ammonia,  lime  water. 

Test  for  Salt. — Fill  a  glass  half  full  of  weak  vinegar 
and  slowly  add  to  it  limewater.  Test  at  intervals  with 
litmus  paper.  When  the  litmus  paper  does  not  change 
color  it  shows  that  the  solution  has  become  neutral.  It  is 
neither  acid  nor  alkali,  but  a  salt. 

Make  a  weak  solution  of  nitric  acid,  and  add  to  this  a 
solution  of  caustic  potash  until  the  litmus  paper  shows 
that  the  solution  is  neutral.  You  now  have  a  salt  known  as 
potassium  nitrate  or  saltpeter.  You  can  get  the  nitrate 
by  evaporating  the  water. 

It  is  in  the  form  of  nitrates  that  most  of  the  nitrogen 
that  plants  use  is  obtained.  There  is  plenty  of  nitrogen 
in  the  air,  but  plants  cannot  use  this.  They  must  get  all 
their  nitrogen  from  the  soil. 

Soils  may  contain  more  acids  than  are  good  for  plants. 
We  may  test  soils  for  acidity  and  alkalinity  just  as  we  tested 
other  things. 

Boil  a  sample  of  soil  to  be  tested  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water.  Let  it  settle,  and  when  perfectly  clear  pour  off  the 
liquid  into  a  white  dish  and  test  with  litmus  paper.  You 
may  have  to  leave  the  paper  in  for  some  time.  If  the  paper 
turns  red,  what  is  your  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  soil? 
If  blue  ?  If  there  is  no  change  of  color  ? 


EXPERIMENTS   IN   SOIL   CHEMISTRY  271 

A  simple  method  of  testing  soil  is  as  follows:  Make  a 
paste  out  of  soil  and  water.  Place  one  end  of  a  small 
strip  of  litmus  paper  in  the  paste.  Allow  it  to  stand  for  an 
hour  or  more,  and  then  note  whether  or  not  the  color  has 
changed.  This  should  be  tried  several  times  before  a  con- 
clusion is  reached.  Have  the  children  bring  in  small 
quantities  of  soil  from  fields  and  gardens.  Test  these 
different  kinds  for  acidity  and  alkalinity. 

If  a  soil  is  acid,  mix  a  small  quantity  of  lime  with  it  and 
test  again.  If  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime  is  applied  the 
acid  is  neutralized  and  the  soil  is  sweetened. 

Let  us  now  look  over  the  remaining  substances  given 
to  plants  by  the  soil  and  try  to  get  some  idea  of  how  they 
exist  in  the  soil.  Iron  is  found  chiefly  in  the  form  of  iron 
oxides.  What  are  these  combinations  of?  Silicon  is 
largely  in  sand.  Some  plants  seem  to  be  able  to  get  along 
without  this.  Calcium  is  in  the  limestones.  Burn  a  piece 
of  lime  rock.  It  now  becomes  quicklime.  Is  it  easily 
broken  ?  Put  it  in  water  to  see  if  it  will  dissolve.  Potas- 
sium is  in  the  form  of  potassium  carbonate.  Chlorine  is  in 
combination  with  sodium,  while  the  sodium  is  frequently 
obtained  from  another  compound,  sodium  bicarbonate. 
Phosphorus  is  in  the  form  of  phosphates  and  phosphoric 
acid. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  sodium  cannot  exist  in  the  soil  as 
an  element.  Place  a  small  piece  on  the  surface  of  water  in 
a  pan  or  dish.  What  does  it  do?  It  unites  at  once  with 
the  water.  In  the  laboratory  it  must  be  kept  under  kero- 
sene or  naphtha. 

It  may  be  shown  also  that  phosphorus  cannot  exist  as 
an  element  in  the  soil.  In  the  laboratory  it  is  kept  under 


272    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

water.  It  has  such  an  affinity  for  oxygen  that  the  moment 
it  is  exposed  to  the  air  it  begins  to  unite  with  oxygen. 
Place  a  small  piece,  not  larger  than  a  sweet-pea  seed,  on  a 
porcelain  dish  and  watch  it.  It  slowly  unites  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  touch 
phosphorus  with  the  finger,  or  to  leave  it  where  it  will 
touch  anything  that  will  burn. 

Phosphoric  acid  may  be  obtained  by  burning  a  bone, 
pulverizing  it,  and  placing  it  in  a  bottle  with  a  weak  solution 
of  sulphuric  acid.  The  lime  of  the  bone  and  the  sulphuric 
acid  unite  and  leave  the  clear  liquid,  the  phosphoric  acid, 

Now  make  a  collection  of  as  many  of  the  elements  and 
compounds  used  by  plants  as  you  can  get. 

Some  time  should  be  taken  at  this  point  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  what  is  meant  by  fertility  of  the  soil.  Of  the 
ten  elements  that  all  plants  must  have,  seven  are  supplied 
by  the  soil.  Name  these  seven.  Where  do  the  plants  get 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon?  If  any  of  the  elements 
supplied  by  the  soil  are  lacking  or  are  not  in  an  available 
form,  we  say  the  soil  is  poor,  or  is  lacking  in  fertility.  There 
are  many  physical  conditions  as  well  as  plant  materials  that 
help  to  make  soil  fertile.  These  will  be  discussed  in  a 
later  lesson.  But  all  the  proper  physical  conditions  known 
will  not  make  a  fertile  soil  if  it  lacks  any  of  the  elements 
that  plants  must  have  in  order  to  manufacture  their  plant 
products. 

Most  of  the  substances  used  by  plants  exist  in  such 
abundance  in  the  soil  that  there  is  little  danger  of  their 
becoming  exhausted.  Three  elements,  however,  that  all 
farm  crops  use  are  not  so  abundant.  These  are  phos- 
phorus, potassium,  and  nitrogen.  In  some  places  calcium 


EXPERIMENTS  IN   SOIL   CHEMISTRY          273 

also  is  lacking.  If  fields  are  cultivated  year  after  year  the 
plants  are  constantly  removing  these  substances  from  the 
soil.  If  nothing  is  done  to  return  these  substances  of 
course  the  soil  becomes  so  deficient  in  these  plant  materials 
that  plants  cannot  thrive  in  it.  It  is  very  important  that 
farmers  see  to  it  that  the  lack  is  supplied  in  some  way. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  the  soil  may  be  kept 
with  a  sufficient  amount  of  plant  materials.  Among  these 
are  the  application  of  barn  manures,  the  plowing  under  of 
green  crops,  and  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

Among  the  commercial  fertilizers,  the  following  are  in 
common  use: 

For  nitrogen,  dried  blood  is  used.  This  contains  twelve 
to  fourteen  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Sodium  nitrate  is  also 
used,  and  this  contains  about  fifteen  per  cent  nitrogen. 

For  phosphorus,  steamed  bone  meal  is  used,  which  con- 
tains about  twelve  or  fourteen  per  cent  of  phosphorus. 
Rock  phosphate  is  also  used. 

For  potassium,  potassium  chloride  is  used,  which  has 
forty  to  forty-two  per  cent  of  potassium.  Kainit,  which 
contains  twelve  per  cent  of  potassium,  is  also  used. 
Potassium  carbonate  in  the  form  of  wood  ashes  is  also 
used. 

Lime  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  either  in  the  form  of  gypsum, 
quicklime,  or  slaked  lime.  While  most  soils  have  enough 
lime  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  plants,  lime  is,  nevertheless, 
of  considerable  value  to  any  soil  that  has  become  acid,  as  we 
have  already  seen  by  experiment.  It  also  helps  to  unlock 
the  unavailable  potash,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen  in  some 
soils,  and  changes  them  to  a  form  available  for  plant  use. 
Why  do  soils  become  sour  ? 


274    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

There  are  a  number  of  agencies  that  tend  to  make  soils 
sour,  especially  soils  that  are  constantly  undergoing  cultiva- 
tion. In  our  study  of  fungi  we  discussed  the  bacteria  that 
cause  organic  matter  in  the  soil  to  decay.  Now  as  this 
matter  decays,  acids  of  various  kinds  are  given  off.  An- 
other acid  in  the  soil  is  carbon 'dioxide,  some  of  which  is 
carried  into  the  soil  by  the  rain.  Sulphuric  and  nitric  acids 
are  also  found  in  soils.  Some  of  the  nitric  acid  is  formed 
in  the  following  way:  When  stable  manure  is  plowed  into 
the  soil  certain  bacteria  feed  upon  it,  making  it  decay,  and 
at  the  same  time  making  part  of  it  into  ammonia.  Other 
bacteria  feed  upon  the  ammonia,  making  part  of  it  into 
nitric  acid.  Some  of  this  acid  remains  in  the  soil,  but  some 
of  it  unites  with  potassium  or  magnesium  and  forms 
nitrates.  It  is  in  the  form  of  these  nitrates  that  plants 
obtain  the  nitrogen  from  the  soil. 

From  our  study  of  clover  and  other  legumes  we  know 
that  nitrogen  may  be  also  supplied  by  growing  those  plants 
that  produce  root  tubercles. 

If  possible,  add  to  your  collection  samples  of  the  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  In  connection  with  this  work  a  num- 
ber of  experiments  in  pot  culture  should  be  started.  The 
following  is  a  list  that  has  been  tried  successfully.  Others 
may  suggest  themselves  to  you. 

Have  the  children  bring  in  some  soil  from  a  field  or 
garden  near  the  schoolhouse.  If  you  have  a- school  garden 
choose  part  of  the  soil  from  that.  Use  flower  pots  seven 
or  eight  inches  in  diameter  or  small  tin  buckets  or  boxes. 
If  the  latter  are  used  be  sure  to  provide  for  drainage. 
Plant  oats,  or  spring  wheat,  or  some  flowering  plants  like 
nasturtium  or  zinnia. 


EXPERIMENTS   IN  SOIL   CHEMISTRY          275 

No.  i.  Leave  the  soil  as  it  was  when  brought  in.  This 
we  call  a  check  pot. 

No.  2.  Mix  thoroughly  with  the  soil  four  grams  of 
dried  blood  or  the  same  amount  of  potassium  nitrate  or 
sodium  nitrate. 

No.  3.  Potassium  chloride  four  grams,  or  same  amount 
of  kainit. 

No.  4.  Bone  meal  six  grams,  or  same  amount  of  sodium 
phosphate. 

No.  5.  Mix  together  four  grams  of  dried  blood  and  six 
grams  of  bone  meal. 

No.  6.  Mix  four  grams  of  potassium  chloride  and  six 
grams  of  bone  meal. 

No.  7.  Potassium  chloride  four  grams,  and  dried  blood 
four  grams,  or  saltpeter. 

No.  8.  Potassium  chloride  four  grams,  dried  blood  or 
saltpeter  four  grams,  and  bone  meal  six  grams. 

No.  9.  No  fertilizer,  hence  another  check  pot. 

No.  10.  A  small  handful  of  slaked  lime. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  start  the  same  experiments  in 
different  soils.  If  some  of  the  children  will  bring  in  some 
worn-out  soil,  a  set  of  experiments  in  this  will  probably 
bring  some  good  results. 

Have  the  children  bring  in  some  soil  in  which  red 
clover  has  been  growing.  Place  some  of  it  in  a  hot 
oven  for  an  hour  or  more.  This  will  kill  the  bacteria 
that  are  in  it.  Put  this  in  a  pot  and  plant  red  clover 
seeds  in  it. 

Place  in  another  pot  some  of  the  soil  that  has  not  been 
sterilized  and  plant  clover  in  this.  Water  and  treat  both 
exactly  alike.  When  the  plants  have  grown  to  be  quite 


276    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

large,  dig  up  and  examine  the  roots  for  tubercles.    Why 
do  you  find  them  on  one  and  not  on  the  other  ? 

These  experiments  may  be  varied  by  inoculating  some 
clover  seed  and  planting  in  some  of  the  sterilized  soil.  This 
may  be  done  by  pouring  some  water  over  soil  in  which 
bacteria  are  present  and  shaking  thoroughly.  When  the 
water  is  clear,  pour  over  the  clover  seeds  and  plant. 

Books  and  Bulletins:  Principles  of  Agriculture,  Bailey; 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture:  Simple  Exercises 
Illustrating  Some  Applications  of  Chemistry  to  Agriculture; 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin  195.  Farmers' 
Bulletins:  The  Liming  of  Soils,  No.  77;  Soil  Fertility, 
No.  257;  Renovation  of  Work-out  Soils,  No.  245;  Soil  In- 
vestigations in  the  United  States,  No.  169. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 

SOIL   AND   ITS   ORIGIN 

SINCE  soil  is  so  closely  related  to  plant  life  and  in- 
directly to  all  life,  we  shall  be  interested  to  know  something 
about  its  origin  and  formation. 

In  preparation  for  this  lesson,  have  the  pupils  bring  in 
different  kind  of  soil:  gravel,  sand,  clay,  or  silt,  obtained 
from  the  excavations  of  a  well  or  for  a  building;  loam,  the 
ordinary  soil  of  field  or  garden;  and  humus,  thoroughly 
decayed  leaf  mold,  old  logs,  or  stumps  from  the  woods. 
If  the  pupils  cannot  procure  these,  the  teacher  should  get 
together  a  collection  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil.  To  the 
above  should  be  added  pieces  of  rock  of  various  kinds. 

What  is  soil  ?  Lead  the  pupils  to  give  their  opinions. 
We  usually  think  of  soil  as  the  upper  layer  of  earth  capable 
of  supporting  plant  life.  How  thick  is  this  true  soil  ?  It 
varies  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet.  What  is  under 
this  ?  If  you  have  ever  looked  at  the  side  of  a  freshly  dug 
ditch  or  well  could  you  see  a  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  the  portion  of  the  soil  near  the  surface  and  that  below  ? 
This  lower,  lighter  colored  portion  is  called  subsoil.  This 
varies  from  a  few  inches  to  several  hundred  feet  in  thick- 
ness. It  varies  also  as  to  material.  Sometimes  it  is  sand, 
sometimes  gravel,  sometimes  very  fine  clay,  sometimes 
coarser  clay  or  silt.  Under  this  subsoil  or  mantle  rock,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  is  bedrock.  Everyone  who  has  ever 

277 


278    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

heard  about  boring  wells  knows  that  often  the  well  digger 
strikes  solid  rock  and  must  abandon  the  excavation  at 
that  point.  Some  of  the  bed  rock  juts  out  of  hillsides  only 
a  few  feet  below  the  surface,  and  in  some  places  it  is  found 
on  the  surface.  The  kinds  of  bedrock  differ  in  different 
regions. 

If  we  look  back  far  enough  into  the  history  of  the  earth, 
we  find  evidences  of  a  time  when  there  was  no  soil  as  we 
know  it  to-day.  The  surface  was  covered  with  solid  rock, 
wrinkled  and  ridged  into  mountains  and  valleys.  All  soil 
has  been  formed  from  the  breaking  up  of  this  solid  rock. 

How  many  agents  can  you  think  of  that  have  helped  to 
break  up  this  solid  rock  and  make  it  into  soil  ?  Change  of 
temperature  from  hot  to  cold  has  done  much  to  break  up 
rock  and  make  finer  the  broken  rock.  How  does  heat 
affect  most  substances  ?  How  does  cold  affect  them  ?  If 
these  rocks  expand  when  heated  and  contract  when  cooled, 
what  is  likely  to  happen  if  they  are  heated  and  then  cooled 
rapidly?  Did  you  ever  spatter  a  drop  of  cold  water  on  a 
hot  lamp  chimney  ?  Why  did  it  break  ? 

Freezing  not  only  helps  to  break  up  solid  rock,  but  helps 
to  pulverize  soil.  In  your  study  of  the  effect  of  freezing  on 
water,  what  did  you  find  out  ?  If  water  settles  in  the  cracks 
and  crevices  of  rocks  and  then  freezes,  what  will  happen  ? 

Experiment. — Make  a  ball  of  garden  soil  by  moistening 
it  and  working  it  like  dough.  Now  put  it  in  the  oven  or  on 
top  of  the  stove  and  let  it  get  dry  and  hard.  Pour  some 
water  over  it  and  set  it  out  of  doors  where  it  will  freeze. 
What  is  the  effect? 

Rain,  wind,  and  snow  all  help  to  disintegrate  the  rock. 
Running  water  plays  an  important  part,  not  only  in  helping 


SOIL  AND   ITS   ORIGIN  279 

to  grind  rocks  slowly  into  soil  but  also  in  carrying  the  soil 
from  one  place  to  another.  One  of  the  chief  agents  in 
making  the  soil  in  much  of  the  United  States  was  the  gla- 
ciers, of  which  you  have  learned  in  your  geography.  These 
great  bodies  of  ice  came  moving  down  over  the  country 
from  the  north,  grinding  up  the  rocks  and  soil,  carrying 
vast  masses  of  this  ground-up  material  long  distances,  and 
finally  depositing  them  far  from  the  places  where  they  were 
ground  up. 

Plants  help  also  in  breaking  up  rock.  They  do  this  in 
two  ways;  by  their  roots  penetrating  rocks  and  soil,  and  by 
an  acid  that  they  give  out  from  their  roots  which  acts 
chemically  upon  the  soil,  dissolving  it. 

Besides  all  this  broken-up  rock,  which  is  inorganic 
matter,  the  soil,  as  we  know  it,  has  the  humus  or  organic 
matter  in  it.  This  is  the  part  of  the  soil  that  gives  it  its 
black  color.  It  is,  as  we  shall  find  out  later,  a  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  soil.  Bacteria  are  constantly  at  work 
on  the  humus  in  the  soil,  making  new  compounds,  setting 
free  elements,  and  making  the  soil  finer.  So  we  can  think 
of  the  soil  not  as  made,  but  as  being  made.  It  is  con- 
stantly changing,  not  only  physically  but  chemically.  It 
is  losing  some  things  and  gaining  some,  and  where  it  is 
under  cultivation  the  gain  and  loss  depend  largely  upon  the 
methods  used  in  cultivating  it. 


19 


CHAPTER   XXXV 

SOME    PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    AND    CONDITIONS    OF    SOIL 

IN  the  preceding  lessons  we  have  learned  that  plants 
use  certain  elements  in  manufacturing  their  foods  and 
products,  and  that  they  get  these  elements  from  compounds 
which  they  obtain  from  the  air,  water,  and  soil.  The 
question  now  arises,  how  do  plants  get  hold  of  this  raw 
material?  In  order  to  answer  tljis  question,  we  must 
understand  something  about  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
soil  as  well  as  its  chemical  composition.  In  the  first  place, 
plants  cannot  use  the  materials  of  the  soil  unless  they  are 
soluble  in  water.  What  do  we  mean  by  this  ? 

Experiment. — Put  some  salt  or  sugar  into  a  glass  full 
of  water.  Drop  it  in  a  little  at  a  time,  stirring  gently  until 
it  disappears.  Since  it  dissolves  it  is  said  to  be  soluble  in 
water.  Drop  a  little  sulphur  into  the  water  and  stir.  Is 
it  soluble  or  insoluble?  Try  some  chalk  dust.  Place  a 
few  small  pieces  of  limestone  or  marble  in  a  tumbler. 
Cover  it  with  water  and  stir.  Do  they  dissolve?  Drop  a 
little  acid  into  the  tumbler.  What  is  the  effect  ?  Does  the 
acid  aid  in  dissolving  the  rock? 

We  have  already  learned  that  acids  of  various  kinds  are 
found  in  the  soil.  Some  of  these  acids  are  valuable  in 
helping  to  change  insoluble  substances  into  soluble  ones. 
Of  course  we  know  that  a  soil  may  become  too  sour  for 

280 


PROPERTIES  AND   CONDITIONS   OF   SOIL         281 

plants  to  thrive  well  in  it.  Nevertheless,  some  acids  are  in- 
dispensable. 

If  the  raw  material  must  be  dissolved  in  water  before 
entering  the  plant,  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be  sufficient 
water  in  the  soil  for  this  purpose.  What  is  the  source  of  the 
soil  water  ?  What  becomes  of  the  rain  that  falls  upon  the 
earth  ?  Some  runs  off  into  streams,  some  evaporates,  but 
some  soaks  into  the  ground.  What  becomes  of  this 
water  ? 

Experiment. — Place  a  handful  of  pebbles  or  gravel  in 
the  bottom  of  a  tumbler  or,  better,  a  quart  jar.  Cover 
the  gravel  with  a  piece  of  wire  screening  or  cheese  cloth. 
Then  fill  the  jar  with  fine  soil  from  a  field  or  garden.  Pour 
me  water  on  the  soil.  What  does  it  do?  As  it  soaks 
into  the  soil,  can  you  see  it  between  the  particles?  Pour 
n  more  until  you  can  see  water  standing  in  the  spaces 
Between  the  pebbles  in  the  bottom  of  the  jar.  When  rain 
ralls  on  the  ground  it  does  just  what  this  water  did.  It 
percolates  slowly  downward  through  the  soil  till  it  is  stopped 
)y  an  impervious  layer,  just  as  the  bottom  of  the  jar 
itopped  this.  If  it  keeps  on  raining,  what  will  happen  ? 
Pour  more  water  into  the  jar  until  it  stands  on  top  of  the 
:ioil.  Does  this  ever  happen  in  the  fields?  Set  the  jar 
iiside  in  a  warm  place  till  the  water  stands  only  a  few  inches 
in  the  bottom. 

The  water  that  completely  fills  the  spaces  in  the  soil 
and  moves  slowly  downward  by  the  force  of  gravity  is 
known  as  free  water.  Plants  do  not  use  this  free  water. 
What  part  of  the  soil  in  the  jar  now  has  free  water?  If 
the  top  layer  of  the  soil  seems  very  dry,  remove  it  and  lay 
it  aside.  Take  in  your  hand  a  little  of  the  moist  soil. 


282    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Does  this  have  water  standing  in  it  ?  Where  is  the  moist- 
ure ?  This  is  called  capillary  water  because  it  is  found  in 
the  pores  of  the  soil.  It  is  sometimes  called  film  water, 
because  it  forms  a  film  around  each  particle. 

Put  a  smooth  pebble  into  some  water.  Take  it  out 
and  you  can  see  a  layer  of  water  around  it.  This  illus- 
trates how  each  tiny  particle  of  the  soil  holds  a  film  of 
moisture.  Capillary  water  is  that  which  is  used  by  the 
plants. 

There  is  another  form  in  which  water  is  found  in  the 
soil.  This  form  is  known  as  hygroscopic  water.  This  is 
held  so  firmly  around  the  soil  particles  that  it  is  very  hard 
to  remove.  Put  a  little  very  fine  dry  soil  into  a  test  tube 
and  heat  it  to  a  high  temperature  over  the  alcohol  lamp. 
What  evidence  have  you  that  this  dry  soil  had  some 
moisture  in  it? 

Do  different  kinds  of  soil  influence  the  amount  of  water 
that  soaks  into  the  ground,  and  the  amount  retained? 
Before  answering  this  question  let  us  become  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  different  soils.  You  have  in  your  col- 
lection several  different  kinds  of  soil;  gravel,  sand,  silt  or 
clay,  loam,  and  humus.  Which  is  composed  of  the 
coarsest  particles  ?  Rub  a  little  of  each  kind  between  your 
thumb  and  finger.  How  do  they  differ?  If  you  have  a 
lens,  spread  a  little  of  each  on  white  paper  and  examine 
carefully.  How  do  the  particles  of  sand  look  ?  Note  the 
jagged  edges  of  the  hardest  particles.  Can  you  find  any 
sand  particles  in  the  loam?  In  the  clay? 

Place  some  sand  in  a  large  iron  spoon  and  heat  it  red 
hot  over  the  alcohol  lamp?  Does  it  burn?  Try  clay, 
humus,  loam.  Which  ones  burn?  It  is  the  organic 


PROPERTIES  AND   CONDITIONS  OF  SOIL         283 

matter  or  humus  in  the  loam  that  burns.  If  a  spoon  and 
alcohol  lamp  are  wanting,  this  experiment  may  be  easily 
performed  by  placing  the  soils  on  a  shovel  on  a  bed  of  coals 
in  the  stove. 

Which  of  the  soils  have  the  greatest  capacity  to  take  in 
rain? 

Experiment. — For  this  experiment  you  will  need  five 
straight-topped  lamp  chimneys.  Those  belonging  to  the 
student's  lamp  are  best.  Tie  firmly  over  the  top  of  each  a 
piece  of  cheese  cloth  or  thin  muslin.  Now  fill  the  chimneys 
with  equal  amounts  of  different  kinds  of  soil.  If  you  have 
both  clay  and  silt  use  those  and  omit  the  gravel.  The  soils 
should  not  contain  lumps  or  coarse  material.  Firm  the 
soil  by  jarring  the  chimneys  on  the  table.  Have  some  boy 
make  a  rack  for  the  chimneys  by  boring  or  cutting  a  hole 
for  each  in  a  board.  The  holes  should  be  large  enough  to 
allow  the  chimneys  to  slip  through  to  the  large  portion 
near  the  base.  This  board  may  be  nailed  to  two  uprights 
or  may  be  set  on  two  blocks  so  that  cups  or  tumblers  may 
be  placed  under  the  chimneys  to  catch  the  drippings. 
Having  measured  a  definite  amount  of  water,  pour  it 
slowly  into  one  of  the  chimneys,  noting  the  length  of  time 
that  transpires  till  the  water  begins  to  drop  below  into  the 
tumbler.  Keep  a  record  of  the  amount  of  water  you  pour 
in.  Do  the  same  with  each  of  the  other  chimneys.  Which 
soil  took  in  the  water  most  rapidly  ?  Which  drained  most 
readily?  Which  was  most  porous?  Which  took  in  the 
water  most  slowly?  Which  is  capable  of  holding  the 
greatest  amount  of  moisture  ?  To  determine  this,  measure 
the  amount  of  water  that  dropped  from  each  chimney  and 
compare  with  amount  poured  in. 


284    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Vary  this  experiment  by  filling  one  chimney  with  clay, 
and  another  with  the  same  kind  of  clay  mixed  with  an 
equal  amount  of  humus.  Pour  the  water  in  as  before. 
What  is  the  effect  of  humus  on  the  porosity  of  the  soil? 
It  will  take  several  days  to  complete  these  experiments. 
In  the  meantime,  cover  the  chimneys  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion of  moisture  from  the  soils. 

What  kind  of  water  dripped  from  the  soils  ?  This  was, 
of  course,  the  free  water  that  in  a  field  could  be  removed 
by  under  drainage.  The  most  common  method  of  under 
drainage  is  by  tiles  made  for  this  purpose.  Later  we  shall 
see  that  drainage  benefits  the  soil  in  many  ways.  From 
your  experiments,  which  do  you  think  stands  more  in  need 
of  under  drainage,  a  field  with  a  sandy  subsoil  or  one  with 
a  heavy  clay? 

Is  there  any  water  left  in  the  soil  after  the  free  water 
has  all  dripped  out?  What  becomes  of  this  capillary 
water  ? 

Fill  a  tumbler  with  moist  soil.  Over  it  invert  another 
tumbler  the  same  size.  Set  it  aside.  Examine  after 
twenty-four  hours.  What  do  you  find  on  the  inverted 
tumbler?  Where  did  the  moisture  come  from?  What 
may  be  done  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the 
soil  ?  Again  place  moist  soil  in  the  tumbler.  Put  on  top 
a  layer  of  very  dry,  fine  soil,  one  inch  deep.  Invert  a 
tumbler  over  this  as  before,  and  note  whether  or  not  any 
evaporation  takes  place.  If  the  moisture  in  the  top  layer 
of  soil  evaporates,  does  this  in  any  way  affect  the  moisture 
farther  down  in  the  soil  ?  There  is  a  movement  of  capil- 
lary water  through  the  soil  which  we  can  best  understand 
by  some  experiments. 


PROPERTIES  AND   CONDITIONS  OF  SOIL         285 

Fill  the  lamp  chimneys  once  more  with  the  different 
kinds  of  dry  soil.  Stand  them  in  a  dish  or  pan  of  water  so 
that  the  mouth  over  which  the  cheese  cloth  is  tied  will  rest 
about  half  an  inch  in  the  water.  What  happens  ?  What 
makes  the  water  creep  upward  in  the  soils  ? 

Hang  a  towel  over  a  desk  so  that  about  an  inch  of  the 
corner  will  rest  in  a  dish  of  water  sitting  on  the  floor. 
What  takes  place?  The  same  thing  is  happening  in  the 
towel  and  in  the  soil.  The  water  is  slowly  rising.  This 
is  due  to  what  is  known  as  capillarity  or  capillary  attrac- 
tion. To  explain  fully  why  this  takes  place  would  take  us 
too  far  into  the  subject  of  physics.  It  is  enough  for  us  to 
know  that  liquids  rise  long  distances  through  small  tubes 
or  pores.  We  have  a  good  illustration  of  this  in  the  ordi- 
nary lamp  wick  which  conveys  oil  from  the  bowl  of  the 
lamp  to  the  top  of  the  wick. 

In  which  kind  of  soil  does  the  water  rise  most  rapidly  ? 
In  which  does  it  reach  the  greatest  height  ?  If  a  field  has 
an  abundance  of  water  in  the  subsoil  this  may  be  lifted  by 
capillarity  to  the  place  where  it  will  be  of  use  to  the  growing 
plants.  What  becomes  of  this  water  as  it  reaches  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  ?  May  much  of  it  be  lost  to  the  plants 
by  evaporation?  Is  there  anything  that  may  be  done  to 
prevent  this  waste  of  moisture  during  the  dry,  summer 
months  ?  We  saw  that  a  layer  of  fine,  dry  soil  on  the  moist 
soil  in  the  tumblers  retarded  evaporation.  Now  place  in 
two  tin  pails  (lard  or  syrup  pails  will  serve  the  purpose) 
equal  amounts  of  moist  soil.  Firm  the  soil  slightly  by 
jarring  the  pails.  Set  them  side  by  side.  Leave  one  un- 
disturbed, but  in  the  other  stir  thoroughly  the  upper  two 
inches  of  soil  every  day.  Weigh  at  the  end  of  a  week. 


286         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Which  has  retained  the  most  moisture?  Why?  Which 
will  keep  the  more  moisture,  a  field  in  which  the  soil  is 
frequently  stirred  on  top  with  a  cultivator  or  one  which  is 
left  undisturbed  ?  Can  you  see  why  this  is  true  ? 

Place  a  lump  of  loaf  sugar  so  that  the  lower  part  will 
rest  in  some  red  or  black  ink.  Does  the  ink  rise  by  capil- 
larity to  the  top  of  the  sugar  ?  Place  another  lump  beside 
this  one  with  a  layer  of  granulated  sugar  scattered  over 
the  top.  Does  the  ink  rise  as  rapidly  through  the  loose 
sugar  as  through  the  lump  ?  Why  ? 

In  the  same  way,  as  long  as  the  soil  is  left  alone,  the 
water  is  constantly  moving  by  capillarity  to  the  surface  and 
evaporating.  A  layer  of  dry  soil  on  top  stops  the  capillary 
flow  of  water  and  the  moisture  is  conserved  for  the  use  of 
the  plants. 

Vary  the  soil  experiments  by  mixing  humus  with  clay 
in  one  chimney  and  with  sand  in  another,  and  by  putting 
lumpy  soil  in  one  and  fine  soil  in  another. 

In  your  study  of  germination  of  seeds  you  found  that 
warmth  was  one  of  the  conditions  that  affected  the  germi- 
nation. Does  moisture  in  any  way  affect  the  temperature 
of  the  soil? 

Experiment. — For  this  experiment  you  will  need  two 
cans;  baking  powder  or  tomato  cans.  In  the  bottom  of 
one  punch  a  number  of  holes  for  drainage.  Fill  them  with 
the  same  kind  of  soil,  and  water  thoroughly  so  that  some 
water  stands  on  the  top.  Set  them  side  by  side  in  a  warm 
place,  or  in  bright  sunshine.  Insert  a  thermometer  an 
inch  under  the  surface  of  each  and  take  readings  several 
times  during  the  day.  Which  shows  the  Higher  tempera- 
ture at  first?  Later  in  the  day?  What  is  happening  in 


PROPERTIES  AND   CONDITIONS   OF   SOIL        287 

the  one  that  has  holes  in  the  bottom  ?  What  is  your  con- 
clusion as  to  the  effect  of  drainage  on  temperature  of  soil  ? 
Other  conditions  being  the  same,  which  will  give  you  the 
warmer  soil  in  the  spring,  a  field  that  has  under  drainage 
or  one  which  has  not? 

Thus  far  we  have  seen  that  the  soil  contains  water  and 
certain  chemical  compounds  that  are  used  by  the  plants, 
also  that  different  kinds  of  soil  differ  in  regard  to  their 
physical  properties.  We  are  now  ready  to  find  out  some- 
thing about  the  relations  of  plants  to  the  soil  and  water. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  Exercise  in  Elementary  Agriculture: 
Office  of  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  186;  Management  of 
Soils  to  Conserve  Moisture,  No.  266;  Soil  Moisture,  etc.; 
No.  87;  Some  Soil  Problems  for  Practical  Farmer,  No.  306; 
Farm  Drainage,  No.  40. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI 

HOW   PLANTS   DO   THEIR  WORK 

WE  are  now  ready  to  consider  plants  in  relation  to 
their  environment  and  find  out  something  about  how  they 
do  their  work.  One  of  the  first  questions  that  comes  to 
us  is,  how  do  roots  of  plants  get  the  water  with  the  other 
raw  material  from  the  soil  ? 

Experiment. — Put  some  moist  blotting  paper  or  sand 
in  a  dinner  plate.  Scatter  over  this  at  some  distance  apart 
a  number  of  radish  or  oat  seeds.  Turn  another  plate  over 
this  to  keep  in  the  moisture  and  set  in  a  warm  place. 
Water  if  necessary.  At  the  same  time  plant  a  few  seeds 
in  a  pot  or  can  of  soil.  After  five  or  six  days  examine  the 
plants  in  the  plate.  What  do  you  find  on  the  roots? 
Those  delicate  threadlike  structures  are  root  hairs.  On 
what  part  of  the  roots  do  you  find  them  most  abundant  ? 
Watch  a  plant  for  several  days  to  see  whether  any  of  the 
hairs  wither  and  die  and  whether  new  ones  continue  to  ap- 
pear. Are  there  any  at  the  very  tip  of  the  root?  Can 
you  see  any  advantage  in  not  having  root  hairs  here? 
Note  what  direction  the  tips  take  as  they  grow.  What  do 
you  think  is  the  use  of  the  root  hairs  ?  If  the  little  plants 
were  growing  in  the  soil  instead  of  on  blotting  paper  the 
root  hairs  would  penetrate  the  spaces  between  the  particles 
of  soil.  Pull  up  one  or  two  of  the  little  plants  that  are 
growing  in  the  pot.  Do  any  of  the  soil  particles  cling  to  the 

288 


HOW  PLANTS  DO  THEIR  WORK  289 


roots?  They  are  really  clinging  to  the  root  hairs.  Of 
course  in  pulling  up  the  plants  you  pulled  off  most  of  these 
delicate  hairs.  If,  then,  these  hairs  are  penetrating  the 
spaces  between  the  soil  particles  are  they  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  film  water  on  the  particles?  They  are 
so  surrounded  with  this  moisture  that  they  absorb  it. 
The  next  experiment  will  help  you  to  see  how  they  do 
this. 

Experiment. — Remove  the  shell  from  the  large  end  of 
an  egg,  leaving  a  space  about  as  large  as  a  quarter.  Be 
careful  not  to  break  the  skin.  This  is  easily  done  by 
gently  striking  the  egg  till  the  shell  is  full  of  small  cracks, 
then  picking  it  off  in  little  pieces.  Make  a  small  hole 
through  both  shell  and  skin  at  the  small  end  of  the  egg. 
Over  this,  place  the  end  of  a  glass  tube  four  or  five  inches 
long.  Stick  the  tube  firmly  to  the  egg  by  means  of  sealing 
wax  or  paraffin.  Another  way  to  fasten  the  tube  on  is 
as  follows:  cut  from  the  lower  end  of  a  candle  a  piece  about 
one-half  inch  long,  bore  a  hole  in  this  just  the  size  of  the 
tube.  This  may  be  done  by  pushing  a  nail  through  it. 
Heat  the  end  gently,  and  stick  it  to  the  egg,  so  that  the  hole 
in  the  candle  covers  up  the  small  hole  in  the  egg.  Heat  a 
long  nail  or  piece  of  wire  and  rub  it  over  the  edges  of  the 
candle,  fastening  it  more  securely  to  the  egg.  Now  place 
the  tube  in  the  hole  in  the  candle,  and  with  the  hot  wire 
fasten  it  securely.  Fill  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  a  pickle  or 
olive  bottle,  with  water  and  set  the  egg  with  the  large  end 
in  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  so  that  the  membrane  will  be 
surrounded  by  the  water.  Set  it  aside  for  a  few  hours  or 
overnight  and  then  examine.  What  has  happened  ? 
What  pushed  the  white  of  egg  up  into  the  tube?  Lift  up 


290         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

the  egg  and  examine  the  lower  part.  Does  it  seem  to  have 
anything  more  in  it  than  when  you  placed  it  on  the  bottle? 
The  fact  is  that  water  has  passed  through  the  membrane 
into  the  egg.  So  much  has  gone  in  that  some  of  the  white 
of  egg  has  been  pushed  up  into  the  tube.  The  process  by 
which  liquids  or  gases  pass  through  animal  or  plant  mem- 
brane is  called  osmosis. 

This  process  may  be  shown  in  another  way.  Have  a 
butcher  remove  a  piece  of  the  thin  membrane  from  a  leg 
of  lamb  or  mutton,  or  when  butchering  time  comes  have 
some  of  the  pupils  save  the  skin  or  pericardium  that  sur- 
rounds a  pig's  heart.  You  can  spread  this  out,  dry  it, 
and  keep  it  any  length  of  time.  Tie  a  piece  of  this  mem- 
brane over  the  large  end  of  a  student's  lamp  chimney, 
moistening  it  thoroughly,  first  by  soaking  in  a  little  warm, 
soapy  water.  Fill  a  tumbler  two-thirds  full  of  water 
colored  with  red  ink.  Place  in  the  lamp  chimney  a  little 
clear  water  so  it  will  stand  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from 
the  bottom.  Now  hang  the  chimney  so  it  will  rest  in  the 
colored  water.  Set  aside  for  a  few  hours  and  then  note 
what  has  taken  place.  Has  any  water  passed  into  the 
chimney  through  the  membrane?  Instead  of  water  in 
the  chimney  place  some  thick  syrup  and  hang  it  in  the 
water. 

How  do  these  experiments  show  what  is  taking  place 
in  the  soil  between  the  water  and  the  root  hairs?  The 
walls  of  the  root  hairs  are  very  thin  and  by  osmosis  the  soil 
water  with  the  plant  materials  passes  readily  through 
them.  At  the  same  time  it  is  probable  that  a  little  of 
the  thicker  substance  in  the  root  hairs  passes  out  into  the 
soil. 


HOW  PLANTS  DO  THEIR  WORK  291 

It  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  show  that  roots  seek  moist- 
ure. Remove  a  portion  of  the  bottom  of  a  chalk  box. 
Tack  a  piece  of  wire  screening  over  the  hole.  Now  put  into 
the  box  about  three  inches  of  moist  sand  or  sawdust. 
Place  directly  over  the  screening  three  or  four  beans  or 
grains  of  corn.  Set  the  box  upon  blocks.  Keep  the  sand 
moist.  Lift  up  the  box  occasionally  and  examine  from 
beneath.  Can  you  see  the  roots?  Did  any  of  them  grow 
through  the  wire  ?  Why  did  they  turn  backward  ? 

This  characteristic  of  roots  to  seek  moisture  may  be 
shown  in  another  way.  Trim  a  little  off  the  side  of  a  chalk 
box  lid  so  you  may  push  it  down  into  the  box,  making  a 
partition  through  the  middle.  Near  the  bottom  of  this 
partition  cut  or  bore  a  hole  as  large  as  a  half  dollar,  and 
tack  a  piece  of  wire  screening  over  it.  Place  clean  sand  or 
soil  in  the  box,  and  plant  beans  or  corn  on  one  side.  After 
the  seeds  have  germinated,  put  a  very  little  water  on  the 
side  of  the  partition  where  the  plants  are  growing;  just 
enough  to  keep  them  alive.  Keep  the  other  side  well 
moistened.  After  two  weeks,  carefully  dig  down  and 
examine  the  roots.  Have  you  any  evidence  that  the  roots 
seek  moisture? 

If  in  a  field  the  level  of  the  free  water  lies  near  the  sur- 
face in  the  spring,  will  the  young  plants  send  their  roots 
very  far  down  into  the  soil  ? 

Experiment. — Take  two  tin  cans.  In  the  bottom  of 
one  punch  holes  for  drainage.  Fill  each  with  moist  soil 
and  plant  corn  or  beans.  Set  them  side  by  side.  Place 
exactly  the  same  amount  of  water  in  each  from  day  to  day. 
Do  not  water  too  much.  After  a  few  weeks  note  the  effect 
on  the  roots.  Which  have  sent  their  roots  farther  down? 


292          NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Does  under  drainage  tend  to  make  a  long  or  short  root 
system?  Which  plants  will  fare  better  during  the  dry 
season,  those  whose  roots  have  grown  to  a  good  depth  or 
those  whose  roots  are  near  the  surface  ? 

To  prove  how  dependent  plants  are  upon  water,  try  the 
following  experiment.  Have  growing  side  by  side  in  pots 
or  cans  plants  of  the  same  kind :  sunflowers,  beans,  or  any 
house  plant.  Give  to  one  all  the  water  needed.  From 
the  other  withhold  water  entirely  for  a  number  of  days. 
What  is  the  result  ?  Now  begin  to  water  the  wilting  plant 
and  note  effects.  What  is  it  that  helps  to  hold  an  herba- 
ceous plant  rigid  and  upright  ?  Is  this  an  important  use 
of  water  in  plants  ? 

It  is  possible  to  determine  with  some  accuracy  how 
much  water  plants  contain.  Pull  up  two  or  three  plants. 
Weeds  will  serve  the  purpose  well.  Wash  the  soil  off  the 
roots  and  weigh  the  plants.  Spread  them  out  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  in  the  room  and  weigh  at  intervals  of  three  or  four 
days.  Do  they  continue  to  lose  water  for  any  length  of 
time  ?  By  what  physical  process  are  they  losing  the  water  ? 

Can  you  think  of  any  way  that  we  may  prove  whether 
or  not  it  is  the  water  alone  that  supplies  the  needs  of  the 
plants  ?  Has  rain  water  any  of  the  chemical  compounds 
in  it  that  soil  water  contains? 

Experiment. — Fill  two  pots  or  cans  with  clean  sand, 
fine  gravel,  or  sawdust.  Plant  in  each  three  or  four  beans, 
peas,  or  sunflowers.  Water  one  with  rain  water,  the  other 
with  well  water.  If  you  wish  to  be  certain  that  the  water 
contains  plant  food,  stir  a  quantity  of  rich  soil  having  plenty 
of  humus  into  some  rain  water,  let  it  stand  several  days, 
then  drain  off  the  water  and  use  this  instead  of  well  water 


HOW  PLANTS  DO  THEIR  WORK  293 

for  the  second  pot.  This  solution  should  be  renewed  at 
least  once  a  week.1 

We  have  now  seen  that  that  soil  water  with  raw 
material  goes  into  the  roots.  We  have  also  seen  that  one 
function  of  this  water  is  to  hold  the  plant  rigid.  We  are 
now  ready  to  ask,  Where  does  this  water  go,  and  what 
finally  becomes  of  it? 

Experiment. — Cut  off  a  growing  twig  from  a  maple, 
or  box-elder  tree;  also  the  stem  of  a  growing  bean  or  sun- 
flower close  to  the  ground.  The  plant  should  be  at  least 
five  inches  high.  Place  these  cut  stems  in  a  tumbler  half 
full  of  water  to  which  you  have  added  a  tablespoonful  of 
red  ink.  Allow  these  to  stand  twenty-four  hours.  With  a 
sharp  knife  slice  off  small  sections  of  the  stems  and  ex- 
amine closely.  Through  what  part  of  the  tree  stem  did  the 
water  travel  upward?  This  is  called  the  wood,  the  soft 
portion  in  the  middle  is  the  pith,  and  the  portion  outside 
the  woody  part  is  the  bark.  If  you  look  at  this  closely 
you  will  see  that  it  is  made  up  of  three  layers — the  brown 
epidermis  on  the  outside,  the  green  layer  in  the  middle, 
and  the  white  bast  on  the  inside.  The  sticky  layer  between 
the  bast  and  the  wood  is  the  cambium.  Where  did  the 
water  travel  upward  in  the  sunflower?  In  the  bean? 
Those  spots  are  made  of  woody  fibers  and  correspond  to 
the  wood  in  the  maple  twig.  You  will  remember  in  the 
study  of  germination  of  seeds  that  we  classified  plants  into 
dicots  and  monocots.  Is  a  bean  a  dicot  or  a  monocot? 

1  The  above  experiment  may  be  tried  by  using  food  tablets  in  the 
water.  These  tablets  contain  the  same  kind  of  compounds  found  in  the 
soil.  They  may  be  procured  at  ten  cents  a  box  with  directions  for  using 
from  Edward  F.  Bigelow,  Stamford,  Conn. 


294    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

All  the  stems  you  have  examined  thus  far  are  dicots. 
Through  what  part  of  the  stem  of  a  dicot,  then,  does  the 
water  move  upward  ? 

Place  some  monocot  stems  in  the  red  ink  solution  to 
determine  where  the  water  travels  through  them.  A  corn 
plant  nine  or  ten  inches  high,  a  stem  of  a  tulip  flower,  a 
trillium,  an  asparagus  stem,  or  any  lily  will  do  for  this 
experiment.  The  spots  in  the  sections  show  the  ends  of 
bundles  of  fiber.  So  in  monocots  the  water  travels  through 
these  fiber  bundles. 

Is  all  the  water  taken  into  the  plant  used  in  the  plant  ? 

Experiment. — Cover  with  glazed  or  writing  paper  the 
top  of  a  pot  in  which  a  plant  is  growing  vigorously.  To 
do  this  slit  the  paper  to  the  center  and  cut  out  a  space  big 
enough  for  the  stem.  Now  slip  the  paper  around  the  stem 
and  tie  around  the  top  of  the  pot.  Turn  a  glass  jar  over 
the  plant  and  let  it  stand  in  the  light  a  few  hours.  What 
do  you  find  on  the  glass  ?  Where  did  the  drops  of  water 
come  from?  This  process  is  called  transpiration.  The 
leaves  transpire,  or  give  out  moisture  constantly.  With  a 
microscope  we  should  be  able  to  find  in  the  thin  skin  or 
covering  of  a  leaf  small  openings.  These  are  called 
stomata.  One  is  a  stoma.  It  is  through  these  that  trans- 
piration chiefly  takes  place.  If  you  have  a  pair  of  bal- 
ances you  can  find  out  by  a  simple  experiment  which  side 
of  a  leaf  contains  the  more  stomata.  Take  from  a  bean, 
sunflower,  geranium,  or  nasturtium  two  leaves  of  the  same 
size.  Balance  these  on  the  pans  of  the  scales  after  having 
covered  the  upper  surface  of  one  leaf  and  the  lower  surface 
of  the  other  with  vaseline.  Watch  for  several  hours. 
Which  one  has  lost  the  least  water  during  this  time  ?  What 


HOW  PLANTS   DO   THEIR  WORK  295 

does  this  show  as  to  where  transpiration  takes  place  more 
rapidly  ? 

We  are  now  ready  to  find  out  something  about  the  way 
in  which  plants  manufacture  their  products.  To  under- 
stand this  we  must  know  something  about  leaves. 

Examine  a  leaf  of  any  plant.  What  are  its  parts — 
stem  or  petiole,  expanded  portion  or  blade.  Hold  the  leaf 
between  you  and  the  light.  What  do  you  see  in  it  ?  How 
are  the  veins  arranged  in  a  bean  leaf,  maple,  sunflower  ? 
These  are  net- veined  leaves.  How  are  the  veins  arranged 
in  a  corn  leaf?  In  grass?  These  are  parallel  veins.  What 
is  the  use  of  the  veins?  By  discussion  the  value  of  the 
veins  in  holding  the  leaf  spread*  will  be  brought  out. 
Place  a  twig  with  growing  leaves  in  a  tumbler  of  water 
colored  with  red  ink.  After  twenty-four  hours  examine 
the  petiole,  the  veins.  What  do  you  conclude?  If  you 
can  procure  a  thick  leaf,  as  live-for-ever,  tulip,  or  hepatica, 
have  the  pupils  peel  off  a  little  of  the  skin  or  epidermis. 
Even  a  thin  leaf  may  have  a  little  of  the  covering  removed, 
enough  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  the  entire  leaf  is 
covered  with  a  thin,  almost  transparent  skin.  What  is"" 
under  the  skin?  This  green,  granular  mass  is  chiefly 
chlorophyll  bodies.  If  the  pupil  could  see  a  cross  sectior 
of  a  leaf  highly  magnified  he  would  find  it  built  up  of  cells 
one  layer  above  another.  Each  cell  has  a  thin  wall  and 
contains  a  number  of  green,  roundish  bodies  called  chloro- 
phyll bodies,  and  a  mass  of  colorless  protoplasm.  The 
protoplasm  is  the  living  part  of  the  leaf,  and  is  the  machin- 
ery that  manufactures  the  plant  products.  But  just  as 
any  machinery  must  have  power  to  make  it  run,  so  must 

the  protoplasm  of  the  leaf.     What  is  the  power  ? 
20 


296         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Experiment — Fill  a  box  or  dinner  plate  with  soil  and 
sow  some  oats  or  wheat  seeds.  After  the  grains  are 
sprouted,  cover  one-half  the  plants  with  a  box  or  tin  can. 
Give  all  the  plants  the  same  amount  of  water.  After  a 
week  compare  the  plants  grown  under  cover  with  those 
grown  in  the  light.  What  do  the  former  lack  ?  What  is 
your  conclusion  as  to  the  ability  of  the  plants  to  make 
chlorophyll  without  light?  Can  the  plant  make  starch 
without  chlorophyll? 

Experiment. — Cut  two  thin  slices  from  the  end  of  a 
cork  stopper.  Place  one  slice  on  the  upper  surface  of  a 
leaf  of  a  vigorously  growing  geranium,  or  better,  a  nas- 
turtium and  the  other  slice  directly  beneath.  Stick  a 
couple  of  pins  through  them  to  hold  them  on.  Leave 
them  till  the  afternoon  of  the  next  day  if  the  sun  has  been 
shining.  Now  remove  the  leaf  from  the  plant  and  the 
piece  of  cork  from  the  leaf.  Boil  the  leaf  in  water  for  a  few 
minutes.  Soak  the  leaf  for  several  days  in  strong  alcohol. 
Change  the  alcohol  until  you  are  sure  all  the  chlorophyll 
is  dissolved  out.  Rinse  out  the  alcohol  with  plenty  of 
water,  then  place  the  leaf  in  iodine  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes.  Rinse  off  with  water.  Does  any  part  of  the  leaf 
show  the  presence  of  starch?  Is  there  any  starch  where 
the  leaf  was  covered  from  light  with  the  slice  of  cork  ?  It  is 
a  good  thing  to  try  several  leaves  at  once.  Some  will 
probably  be  much  more  successful  than  others. 

Without  light,  then,  plants  cannot  make  chlorophyll, 
and  without  the  chlorophyll  no  starch,  protein,  or  other 
product  can  be  made  by  the  protoplasm.  The  light  then 
is  the  power  that  runs  the  machinery,  but  the  chlorophyll 
is  the  connecting  link  between  the  power  and  the  machine. 


. 


:OW  PLANTS  DO  THEIR  WORK  297 

In  some  way  it  succeeds  in  hitching  them  together  so  that 
they  may  do  their  work. 

We  have  only  to  think  back  to  our  study  of  soil  chem- 
istry to  remember  that  starch  is  made  out  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  from  the  water,  and  carbon  from  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  air,  and  that  proteids  contain  these  three  elements 
with  the  addition  of  nitrogen  from  nitrates,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  etc.,  from  the  soil.  The  leaves  take  in  the 
carbon  dioxide  probably  through  their  stomata.  What 
must  be  done  with  this  compound  before  the  plant  can  use 
the  carbon?  If  the  protoplasm  decomposes  the  carbon 
dioxide  and  uses  the  carbon,  what  becomes  of  the  oxygen? 
It  is  thrown  out  of  the  leaf  into  the  air.  Therefore, 
when  a  plant  is  actively  engaged  in  manufacturing  starch 
it  -is  taking  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and  giving  out 
oxygen.  Could  this  process  be  carried  on  during  the 
night?  Why? 

The  question  now  arises,  what  do  the  plants  do  with  the 
starch  proteids  and  oils  that  they  make  ?  By  discussion  the 
facts  may  be  brought  out  that  the  starch  by  a  process 
something  like  digestion  in  our  bodies  is  changed  into 
sugar,  and  that  this  and  the  other  foods  are  conveyed  in 
liquid  form  from  the  leaves  to  all  parts  of  the  plants  when 
they  are  used  in  the  growth  of  these  parts.  Some  of  the 
food  is  stored  for  future  use.  Recall  the  study  of  potato, 
corn  seeds,  biennial  roots,  etc. 

Dig  up  some  corn  plants  that  have  been  growing  two 
or  three  weeks.  Examine  the  grains.  What  has  become 
of  their  contents  ? 

But  plants  need  something  besides  food  in  order  to  live 
and  grow.  They  are  like  animals  in  this  respect.  They 


298          NATURE   STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 


must  have  air  to  breathe  as  well  as  food  to  eat.  They 
cannot  live  without  the  oxygen  of  the  air  any  more  than 
animals  can.  In  our  study  of  germination  we  proved  that 
air  was  necessary  for  the  beginning  of  growth  from  the 
seed.  Is  it  necessary  for  further  growth  of  the  plants  ? 

Experiment. — Place  a  plant  that  is  growing  in  a  very 
small  pot  or  can  in  a  quart  Mason  jar.  Put  water  enough 
in  the  jar  to  stand  almost  to  the  top  of  the  pot.  Screw  the 
top  on  tightly,  using  a  rubber  as  in  canning  fruit.  Allow 
it  to  stand  several  days.  What  takes  place?  What  have 
you  deprived  the  plant  of?  The  plant  droops  because 
you  have  cut  off  the  supply  of  fresh  air  or  oxygen.  If 
you  leave  it  long  enough  here  it  will  die.  Do  the  roots 
need  oxygen  as  well  as  the  leaves  and  stem  ?  In  a  can  or 
pot  in  which  a  corn  or  other  plant  is  growing,  pour  water 
until  the  soil  is  completely  saturated  and  the  water  stands 
on  top  around  the  stem.  Now  set  the  plant  in  a  jar  of 
water  completely  covering  the  brim  of  the  pot.  Keep  in 
this  condition  several  days  and  note  effect.  What  part  of 
the  plant  is  deprived  of  air?  Is  there  any  air  in  the  soil 
when  all  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  are  filled 
with  water?  Fill  a  tumbler  full  of  dry  soil.  Pour  water 
in  one  spot.  Watch  for  bubbles  of  air  that  the  water  is 
driving  out.  What  happens  to  corn  or  oats  on  which  the 
water  stands  for  several  days?  They  are  "drowned  out" 
because  air  is  cut  off  from  their  roots.  It  is  well  to  know 
that  plants  in  the  act  of  breathing  throw  out  carbon 
dioxide  just  as  animals  do.  It  is  worth  while  knowing  also 
that  breathing  or  respiration  in  plants  goes  on  all  the  time 
both  night  and  day. 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 

HOW   TO   KEEP   THE    SOIL   IN   CONDITION    TO    SUPPLY   THE 
NEEDS   OF  PLANTS 

Now  that  we  know  something  about  the  needs  of 
plants  and  the  work  they  do,  we  are  ready  to  consider  what 
may  be  done  not  only  to  produce  good  crops,  but  to  insure 
the  production  of  good  crops  in  the  future. 

One  thing  to  be  considered  is  tillage.  This  is  of  two 
kinds:  the  breaking  up  or  the  plowing  in  preparation 
for  the  seed,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  when  the  crop 
is  growing.  The  plowing  may  be  done  in  the  fall  or  spring. 
Can  you  think  of  any  advantages  of  fall  plowing?  What 
is  the  effect  of  freezing  on  the  soil?  There  may  be  some 
disadvantages  in  fall  plowing  in  some  localities.  Where 
there  is  a  subsoil  of  sand,  heavy  rains  may  wash  out  or 
leach  from  the  soil  some  of  the  soluble  compounds  that 
with  the  spring  plowing  might  have  been  saved  for  the 
plants.  One  of  the  most  important  things  to  think  about 
in  tillage  is  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  so  that  it  may 
be  fine  and  fit  for  the  seeds. 

Experiment. — Plant  some  corn  seeds  in  a  pot  contain- 
ing coarse,  lumpy  soil.  In  another  plant  seeds  containing 
the  same  kind  of  soil  that  has  been  made  fine.  Water 
both.  In  which  do  the  seeds  germinate  first?  Which 
plants  thrive  best  after  germination? 

What  are  some  of  the  other  benefits  due  to  tillage  ?  It 
299 


300    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

increases  the  depth  of  the  soil.  How  does  it  do  this? 
Which  is  better,  shallow  plowing  or  deep  ?  Why  ?  If  year 
after  year  only  the  upper  three  or  four  inches  of  soil  are 
turned  over,  this  will  become  so  depleted  of  its  plant  foods 
that  it  will  be  1 1  worn  out."  Besides,  the  lower  layer  of  soil 
will  become  so  packed  and  sour  that  it  will  be  utterly  unfit 
for  the  plant  roots.  How  will  deeper  plowing  prevent  this  ? 
Tillage  also  aids  in  the  saving  of  moisture.  How?  It 
also  loosens  the  soil  so  that  it  will  hold  more  air  and  be 
better  ventilated.  It  kills  out  the  weeds,  and  thus  prevents 
a  loss  of  plant  foods  and  water.  By  breaking  up  the  soil 
particles  it  renders  the  plant  foods  more  available.  It 
turns  under  vegetation  and  thus  increases  the  amount  of 
humus  in  the  soil. 

The  second  thing  to  consider  in  helping  the  soil  to 
supply  the  needs  of  plants  is  drainage.  We  have  already 
seen  some  of  the  advantages  of  under  drainage.  It  ren- 
ders the  soil  more  porous.  It  increases  the  temperature 
in  the  spring.  It  gives  an  opportunity  for  better  ventila- 
tion. It  results  in  a  deeper  root  system.  Proper  tillage 
and  drainage  then  are  two  very  important  forces  in  main- 
taining good  physical  conditions  of  the  soil. 

The  rotation  of  crops  is  another  important  considera- 
tion. Agriculturists  are  coming  to  believe  more  and  more 
that  to  grow  the  same  kind  of  crop  in  a  field  year  after  year 
will  result  in  absolute  ruin  to  the  soil.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this.  One  is  that  certain  kinds  of  crops  use 
more  of  one  kind  of  plant  material  than  of  others.  After  a 
number  of  years  the  soil  is  so  lacking  in  this  particular 
compound  that  it  is  difficult  to  grow  any  kind  of  a  crop  in 
it.  Another  probable  reason  is  that  each  plant  gives  out 


HOW  TO   KEEP  THE  SOIL  IN  CONDITION 


301 


a  certain  amount  of  organic  waste  matter  into  the  soil. 
When  a  plant  has  been  grown  for  a  term  of  years  in  one 
locality,  the  soil  becomes  so  full  of  this  poisonous  waste  that 
the  plant  can  no  longer  thrive  in  it.  This  substance  is  not 
so  poisonous  to  other  plants,  and  thus  by  a  wise  rotation  of 
crops  this  waste  need  not  result  in  disadvantage  to  the 
plants.  Rotation  also  gives  an  opportunity  to  kill  out 
weeds  that  are  likely  to  persist  if  the  same  crop  is  grown 
year  after  year. 

Every  region  must  settle  for  itself  the  crops  that  are  to 
be  rotated ;  but  every  farmer  in  any  locality  should  adopt 
a  definite  system  of  plant  rotation.  In  the  Middle  West, 
where  corn  is  the  staple  crop,  a  three-year  rotation  is 
carried  on  successfully  in  some  places.  This  consists  of 
oats  or  wheat,  clover,  corn. 

One  important  result  that  comes  with  crop  rotation  is 
the  increase  of  humus.  Humus  is  added  in  the  plowing 
under  of  the  oats  or  wheat  stubble,  as  well  as  the  stems  and 
roots  of  the  clover.  The  value  of  humus  in  any  soil  cannot 
be  overestimated.  From  our  experiments  what  do  you 
know  of  the  effect  of  humus  on  the  capacity  of  soils  to  hold 
moisture?  Besides  this,  humus  improves  the  texture  of 
the  soil,  adds  plant  foods,  and  helps  to  make  available  other 
plant  materials  that  are  locked  up  in  the  soil. 

What  are  the  sources  of  humus?  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  plowing  under  of  stubble  and  clover.  What 
plant  food  does  the  clover  and  other  legumes  add  to  the 
soil?  Other  crops  besides  legumes  are^ sometimes  raised 
and  plowed  undSr  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  humus. 
Such  crops  are  called  green  manures.  Rye  is  frequently 
used  in  this  way.  Stable  manure  is  by  far  the  best  source 


302    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

of  humus.  It  not  only  improves  the  physical  condition  of 
the  soil  but  adds  some  of  the  most  important  plant  foods, 
phosphorus,  nitrogen,  and  potassium.  It  is  the  most 
perfect  of  all  fertilizers. 

One  thing  more  is  done  in  many  places  to  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  that  is  the  use  of  commercial  fertil- 
izers. This  we  have  already  discussed  in  our  study  of  soil 
chemistry.  Just  what  plant  materials  may  be  lacking  in 
any  soil  can  be  told  only  by  testing  the  soil,  not  in  the 
laboratory  but  in  the  field.  Any  boy  can  have  a  fertilizer 
plot  in  which  he  can  determine  whether  the  application  of 
commercial  fertilizers  will  increase  the  productiveness  of 
the  soil.  See  suggestion  for  home  experiment. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  story  then.  In  order  to  increase 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  we  must  see  to  it  that  the  soil  is  kept 
in  good  physical  condition  by  proper  tillage,  drainage,  and 
the  addition  of  humus ;  and  that  the  plant  materials  that  are 
removed  by  the  plants  to  manufacture  their  products  be 
returned  in  good  measure  in  the  form  of  stable  manures, 
leguminous  plants,  green  manures,  or  commercial  fertil- 
izers. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  Beneficial  Bacteria  for  Leguminous 
Crops,  No.  214;  Soil  Inoculation  for  Legumes;  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  No.  71;  Cowpeas,  No.  89;  The  Soybeans 
as  a  Forage  Crop,  No.  58;  Alfalfa  or  Lucerne,  No.  31; 
Alfalfa  Growing,  No.  215;  Drainage  of  Farm  Lands,  No. 
187;  Practices  in  Crop  Rotations,  No.  289;  Relation  of 
Sugar  Beets  to  General  Farming,  No.  320. 


PART   FOUR 
CHAPTER    XXXVIII 

BIRD  STUDY 

Reasons  for  Bird  Study. — There  are  several  good  reasons 
why  bird  study  should  find  a  place  in  our  public-school 
programmes. 

The  boys  and  girls  should  be  taught  to  recognize  the 
value  of  birds  from  an  economic  standpoint.  Few  persons 
who  have  not  made  a  careful  study  of  birds  and  their  habits 
have  any  adequate  notion  of  what  benefactors  these  little 
creatures  are  to  farmers,  fruit  growers,  and  gardeners. 

The  forces  of  nature  are  so  nicely  balanced  that  we  are 
scarcely  aware  of  their  existence  till  something  disturbs  the 
equilibrium  and  we  feel  the  resulting  disorder.  Because 
our  crops  are  not  destroyed  every  year  by  insect  pests  we 
give  little  heed  to  the  matter,  and  never  realize  that  if  it 
were  not  for  the  birds  that  keep  these  pests  in  check  many 
of  our  cultivated  fields,  as  well  as  our  forests,  would  become 
"Deserts  without  leaf  or  shade." 

According  to  Hornaday  the  fact  is  well  established  that 
birds  are  less  numerous  in  United  States  now  than  they 
were  a  hundred  years  ago. 

One  cause  of  the  decrease  is  due  to  the  changed  con- 
ditions brought  about  by  the  forward  movement  of  civiliza- 
tion. As  the  woods  have  been  cleared,  the  prairies 
broken  up  for  cultivation,  and  the  swamps  drained,  nesting 

303 


304    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

and  feeding  places  of  many  birds  have  been  destroyed. 
These  birds  have  been  compelled  to  do  one  of  three  things : 
retreat  to  more  inaccessible  haunts,  adapt  themselves  to  the 
new  conditions,  or  give  up  their  lives  in  the  struggle. 

While  several  species  have  become  practically  extermi- 
nated, many  have  succeeded  in  adjusting  themselves  to  the 
changed  conditions  and  thrive  just  as  well,  or  better,  under 
the  new  order  of  things  as  under  the  old. 

There  are  other  causes,  however,  which  constantly  tend 
toward  the  destruction  of  our  birds.  Among  these  are 
cats,  English  sparrows,  and  other  natural  foes,  besides  the 
indiscriminate  shooting  of  birds  on  the  part  of  many 
hunters. 

Another  important  cause  is  the  wholesale  robbing  of 
nests,  and  often  the  destruction  of  entire  broods  of  young 
birds  by  boys  who  are  seized  with  a  mania  for  collecting 
eggs.  Like  many  other  fads  the  collecting  craze  is  danger- 
ously contagious.  Let  one  boy  in  a  village  or  school  dis- 
trict catch  the  disease  and  a  score  of  others  are  attacked 
immediately.  The  result  is  that  almost  every  nest  for 
miles  around  is  spied  out  and  ruthlessly  pillaged. 

Occasionally  this  may  result  in  value  to  the  collector. 
It  may  bring  about  a  genuine  love  for  the  birds  and  a 
knowledge  of  their  lives  and  habits  that  is  worth  while,  but 
in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  every  hundred  the  result  is  a 
lessening  of  the  number  of  birds  without  gain  or  profit  of 
any  kind  to  the  boys. 

Another  cause  of  bird  destruction  is  the  prevailing 
fashion  of  decorating  women's  hats  with  bird  skins,  wings, 
breasts,  etc.  The  number  of  birds  sacrificed  for  this  pur- 
pose every  year  is  appalling.  An  editorial  in  the  Forest  and 


BIRD   STUDY  305 

Stream  a  few  years  ago  mentions  a  dealer  who  during  a 
three-months  trip  to  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  prepared 
no  less  than  eleven  thousand  and  eighteen  bird  skins. 
This  is  but  one  instance.  Many  others  of  the  same  sort 
might  be  quoted.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  Florida 
the  white  heron  is  becoming  practically  extinct  because  so 
many  of  the  delicate,  graceful  plumes  known  as  egrets, 
have  been  transferred  from  the  backs  of  the  birds  to  the 
hats  of  American  women. 

It  is  also  true  that  on  many  islands  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  gulls,  terns,  and  other  sea  birds  have  been  almost 
exterminated  for  the  same  reason. 

But  we  must  not  imagine  that  it  is  only  Southern  and 
sea  birds  that  are  slaughtered  for  the  millinery  trade. 
Many  bright  plumaged  birds  of  our  Middle  West  suffer  the 
same  fate.  An  Indianapolis  taxidermist  stated  tjiat  in 
1895  there  were  shipped  from  that  city  five  thousand  bird 
skins,  all  collected  in  the  Ohio  valley. 

If  women  could  be  brought  face  to  face  with  the  facts, 
if  they  only  knew  the  terrible  cruelty  practiced  in  securing 
bird  skins,  if  they  realized  the  great  loss  to  the  country  due 
to  the  destruction  of  so  many  insect  eaters,  the  sacrifice 
would  be  stopped.  But  they  do  not  know  and  the  de- 
struction goes  on. 

In  view  of  all  these  facts,  is  it  not  time  that  we  make  an 
effort  to  awaken  in  our  boys  and  girls  a  genuine  interest  in 
the  protection  of  our  birds? 

When  the  girls  of  our  public  schools  have  been  thor- 
oughly aroused  to  use  their  influence  in  the  right  direction, 
the  problem  of  how  to  prevent  the  killing  of  birds  for  mil- 
linery purposes  will  be  solved. 


306    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Likewise,  when  the  boys  clearly  see  and  appreciate  the 
value  of  birds  in  orchard,  field,  and  forest,  the  collecting  of 
eggs  and  the  use  of  air  guns  and  sling  shot  will  cease. 

While  the  first  practical  reason  is  a  strong  one  for 
urging  bird  study  in  the  schools  it  is  not  the  only  one.  The 
study  is  worth  while  because  of  its  educational  value;  it 
quickens  ears  and  eyes,  as  well  as  sharpens  the  intellect 
and  develops  patient  self-control. 

Its  aesthetic  value  is  hard  to  estimate.  Few  natural 
objects  are  so  well  adapted  to  touch  the  finer  chords  of  ones 
being.  The  beauty  of  form  and  color  and  song  stimulates 
the  imagination  and  awakens  the  poetic  sense. 

Suggestions  for  Bird  Study. — Bird  study  to  be  successful 
must  be  a  study  of  living  birds  in  their  natural  haunts. 
In  no  other  way  can  we  hope  to  establish  a  permanent 
interest  in  the  subject.  While  out-of-door  observations 
are  essential,  it  may  not  be  practicable  for  classes  to  make 
these  observations  during  school  hours,  nor  is  this  neces- 
sary. A  little  planning  makes  it  possible  to  do  the  work 
with  ease  outside  of  school  hours.  For  the  lower  grades  a 
short  trip  at  the  close  of  school  now  and  then  is  sufficient. 
With  the  older  classes  early  morning  excursions  will  prove 
very  profitable.  This  is  easily  accomplished  in  towns  and 
villages  where  the  children  may  come  together  without 
going  long  distances.  In  rural  districts  the  pupils  may 
start  earlier  than  usual  some  morning  and  have  an  hour's 
study  before  nine  o'clock,  or  they  may  take  time  after  school 
for  a  short  ramble.  Numerous  field  trips  are  not  neces- 
sary. The  study  is  so  attractive  in  itself  that  usually  two 
or  three  excursions  are  sufficient  to  arouse  the  enthusiasm 
to  such  a  pitch  that  the  teacher  finds  herself  almost  over- 


BIRD  STUDY  307 

whelmed  with  descriptions  of  birds  and  questions  about 
birds. 

The  spring  is  undoubtedly  the  best  season  of  the  year 
in  which  to  emphasize  bird  study.  For  beginners  no  time 
is  better  than  the  latter  part  of  winter  or  very  early  spring. 
Only  the  winter  birds  are  to  be  found  at  this  time  and  the 
acquaintance  of  these  may  easily  be  made  before  the 
migrants  arrive  from  the  south.  Also  the  birds  are  less 
shy,  more  numerous,  and  more  musical  at  this  season  than 
at  any  other.  Then,  too,  the  buds  are  only  beginning  to 
open  and  the  birds  cannot  hide  behind  clumps  of  foliage 
as  they  are  able  to  do  later  in  the  season. 

The  following  are  suggestions  for  conducting  classes  in 
the  field:  Quietness  on  the  part  of  every  member  of  the 
class  is  essential.  Loud  talking  and  laughing  must  not 
be  allowed.  Move  slowly  and  together.  One  member 
who  is  inclined  to  chase  ahead  may  spoil  the  study  for  all 
the  rest.  Make  the  most  of  one  bird  when  opportunity 
offers.  If  two  or  three  birds  appear  in  the  same  locality 
at  the  same  time  there  is  a  temptation  to  try  to  see  them 
all  at  once.  The  result  is  that  nothing  definite  is  observed 
about  any  one  of  them.  Strive  for  accuracy  of  observa- 
tion. Do  not  form  the  habit  of  making  decisions  without 
sufficient  data.  One  feather  does  not  make  a  bird.  Stop 
now  and  then  and  be  perfectly  still  in  order  to  locate  birds 
by  their  notes.  Occasionally  divide  the  class  into  small 
companies.  Let  each  group  take  a  different  direction  for 
study.  A  comparison  of  reports  from  the  different  groups 
will  make  a  profitable  exercise.  Encourage  the  children 
to  feel  that  it  is  just  as  important  to  become  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  birds  they  know  already  as  it  is  to 


308    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

identify  new  ones.  Help  them  realize  that  it  is  not  color 
alone,  but  the  habits  and  movements  that  will  enable  them 
to  identify  new  birds  and  recognize  old  acquaintances. 
As  far  as  possible  keep  your  back  to  the  sun,  otherwise  the 
colors  are  likely  to  be  misleading.  Opera  or  field  glasses 
in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  and  possibly  the  older  pupils 
aid  materially  in  the  study,  but  they  are  not  indispensable. 
All  the  larger  birds  and  many  of  the  smaller  ones  may  be 
identified  with  the  unaided  eye.  If  you  know  of  a  small 
stream  or  pool  where  birds  are  in  the  habit  of  gathering  to 
drink  and  bathe,  you  may  study  many  different  specimens 
by  sitting  quietly  near  the  spot  and  watching  the  birds  as 
they  come  to  the  watering  place. 

A  simple  outline  that  may  easily  be  kept  in  mind, 
similar  to  the  one  given  below,  adds  definiteness  to  the 
work. 

Where  is  the  bird  ?  What  is  it  doing  ?  What  is  its 
size  ?  Compare  with  robin,  English  sparrow,  or  house 
wren.  What  is  the  color  of  head,  neck,  back,  wings,  tail, 
throat,  breast,  belly  ?  Color  and  length  of  bill.  Do  you 
notice  any  special  color  markings  when  the  bird  flies  ? 

While  the  study  should  receive  its  greatest  attention 
during  the  spring  months,  much  may  be  done  in  the  fall  at 
the  beginning  of  the  school  year.  If  certain  birds  have 
been  studied  in  the  spring,  observation  of  these  should  be 
continued  in  the  fall.  Any  difference  in  habits  that  the 
birds  have  taken  on  should  be  noted.  The  young  or 
immature  of  many  species  differ  greatly  from  the  adults  in 
color  markings.  The  fall  is  a  good  time  to  identify  them. 
Many  of  the  summer  residents  gather  in  flocks  several 
weeks  before  starting  on  their  journey  southward.  This  is 


BIRD   STUDY  309 

true  of  robins,  bluebirds,  blackbirds,  cowbirds,  doves, 
meadow  larks,  song  sparrows,  and  others.  The  number 
of  birds  in  a  flock  may  be  noted,  where  the  different  groups 
may  be  found,  whether  or  not  all  the  individuals  in  a  flock 
look  alike.  A  record  should  be  kept  of  the  date  when  the 
last  flock  was  seen.  Watch  to  see  if  any  stragglers  are  left 
after  the  flocks  have  disappeared.  During  September  and 
October  flocks  of  migrants  that  spend  the  summer  farther 
north  will  be  found  in  abundance. 

The  winter  residents  begin  to  appear  about  the  same 
time.  It  is  worth  while  to  continue  the  observation  long 
enough  to  enable  the  children  to  determine  for  themselves 
which  birds  are  winter  residents  and  which  migrants. 
When  the  leaves  have  fallen  from  the  trees,  nests  that  have 
been  hidden  away  during  the  summer  are  exposed  to  view. 
They  may  be  counted  and  in  this  way  the  number  of  birds 
that  reared  young  in  the  neighborhood  be  estimated. 
Children  who  live  in  the  country  will  be  interested  in  find- 
ing out  how. many  nests  are  stowed  away  in  the  osage  hedge 
rows  that  border  the  roadside.  The  location  of  nests  may 
be  noted  as  to  whether  they  are  in  a  crotch  or  on  a  hori- 
zontal limb,  whether  in  a  tree  or  bush,  and  how  far  from 
the  ground  they  are  built.  Determine  whether  certain 
species  of  trees  and  shrubs  are  preferred  to  others.  A  few 
nests  may  be  collected  and  studied,  noting  how  they  are 
made,  the  material  used,  the  skill  with  which  they  are  put 
together. 

The  outdoor  study  may  well  be  supplemented  with 
short  exercises  in  the  schoolroom.  Fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  a  week  will  be  ample  time  for  this  work.  Give 
the  children  a  few  definite  points  to  find  out  about  some 


310    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

bird  they  are  studying.  Take  a  few  minutes  to  compare 
reports  of  these  observations.  Keep  a  list  with  dates  of  the 
birds  actually  seen  by  the  class  in  the  field.  Encourage 
older  pupils  to  keep  individual  bird  calendars.  Help  the 
children  to  form  the  habit  of  caring  for  weak  and  wounded 
birds.  Have  them  try  to  attract  the  birds  about  their 
homes  as  described  in  another  paragraph. 

Bird  study  may  easily  be  correlated  with  language 
work  and  drawing.  Many  interesting  compositions  may 
be  written  on  topics  that  bear  upon  the  bird  study: 
What  I  saw  during  an  early  morning  bird  trip.  What 
the  woodpeckers  do  for  us.  What  we  may  do  for  the 
birds.  What  I  saw  a  robin  doing.  Why  should  native 
sparrows  be  protected  ?  The  water-color  hour  may  well 
be  spent  now  and  then  in  painting  a  bird  that  has  been  seen 
and  admired. 

How  to  Attract  the  Birds. — The  number  of  birds  in  any 
neighborhood  depends  largely  upon  the  abundance  of 
food  supply,  the  number  of  suitable  nesting  and  roosting 
places,  and  whether  or  not  the  birds  feel  a  sense  of  security 
against  natural  foes.  Much  may  be  done  to  make  the 
surroundings  of  our  homes  and  schools  so  attractive  that 
the  number  of  birds  will  steadily  increase. 

Trees  and  shrubs  are  perhaps  of  first  importance;  with- 
out those  we  may  not  hope  for  an  abundance  of  bird  life. 
While  trees  of  any  sort  are  better  than  none,  some  kinds 
seem  to  have  a  greater  attraction  for  birds  than  others. 
This  fact  may  well  be  taken  into  consideration  when  trees 
are  being  set  out  in  our  yards,  or  along  the  streets  and  in  the 
parks  of  cities.  Maples  of  various  kinds  are  attractive  to 
robins,  wood  thrushes,  gold  finches,  and  other  birds  that 


BIRD  STUDY  311 

like  crotches  in  which  to  build  their  nests.  Elms  are  re- 
garded with  special  favor  by  orioles.  Evergreens  are 
general  favorites,  affording  nesting,  feeding  and  roosting 
places  for  a  great  variety  of  birds.  Clumps  of  shrubs  in  the 
corner  of  yards  or  gardens  are  not  only  beautiful  in  them- 
selves, but  serve  as  nesting  places  for  at  least  half  a  dozen 
different  species. 

For  birds  that  build  in  cavities,  boxes  and  other  recepta- 
cles may  be  prepared  with  little  trouble.  Any  boy  or  girl 
who  knows  how  to  use  a  saw,  a  hammer,  and  nails  can 
make  a  birdhouse.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  it  fancy  or 
elaborate,  only  comfortable  and  roomy.  Indeed,  a  wren 
or  chickadee  will  often  choose  a  plain,  inconspicuous  cigar 
or  starch  box  in  preference  to  a  modern  apartment  house 
painted  up  in  bright  colors.  There  is  nothing  better  for 
birdhouses  than  old  weathered  boards.  These  should  be 
left  unpainted.  If  new  boards  are  used  they  should  be 
painted  a  dull,  dark  green  or  a  barklike  gray.  The 
entrance  for  wrens  and  chickadees  should  not  be  more  than 
an  inch  in  diameter;  the  size  of  a  quarter  dollar  is  a  good 
size.  This  is  large  enough  to  admit  the  wren,  but  too 
small  to  allow  an  English  sparrow  to  slip  in.  For  blue 
birds  and  martins  a  two- inch  hole  is  sufficient.  Other 
receptacles  than  boxes  are  often  received  with  apparent 
satisfaction.  Old  coffee  and  tea  pots  which  are  fastened 
up  in  some  trees  of  our  garden  have  been  occupied  a  num- 
ber of  years  by  wrens  and  bluebirds. 

Birds  may  often  be  induced  to  build  near  our  homes  by 
providing  them  with  suitable  building  material.  Twine 
strings  of  different  colors  hung  upon  the  branches  of  trees 
or  some  other  accessible  place  usually  prove  a  real  bonanza 


312          NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

to  orioles,  as  well  as  to  yellow  warblers,  indigo  buntings, 
and  cardinals.  Strips  of  cloth  an  inch  or  so  wide  and  a  foot 
or  more  long  placed  in  the  shrubbery  will  be  seized  eagerly 
by  catbirds  and  thrashers.  Even  robins  will  not  despise  a 
strip  of  cloth  or  paper  to  work  into  the  foundation  of  their 
nests;  but  they  like  better  than  this  a  spot  of  wet  soil  in 
the  garden  from  which  they  may  obtain  mud  for  the  walls 
of  their  nests. 

The  problem  of  food  supply  is  not  a  serious  one  for  the 
birds  during  the  summer  months,  since  at  this  season  they 
subsist  chiefly  upon  insects.  Some  birds,  however,  vary 
this  insect  diet  with  seeds  and  fruits  of  various  kinds.  For 
this  reason  they  have  acquired  a  bad  reputation  among 
fruit  growers.  There  is  little  doubt  that  all  fruit-eating 
birds  prefer  wild  to  cultivated  varieties.  They  eat  the 
latter  because  man  has  destroyed  all  of  their  former  wild 
fruit-feasting  haunts.  Shrubs  and  trees  that  bear  wild 
fruit  set  out  in  the  yard,  or  in  the  corner  of  the  orchard, 
will  not  only  save  the  cultivated  fruit  but  will  attract  to  our 
premises  birds  that  otherwise  visit  us  but  rarely. 

The  following  trees  and  shrubs  bear  fruit  that  attract 
the  birds:  wild  cherry,  white  mulberry,  mountain  ash, 
hackberry,  dogwood,  elder,  and  sumach.  A  few  sunflowers 
will  attract  flocks  of  merry  goldfinches  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer.  Wild  columbine  and  trumpet  creeper 
will  bring  the  dainty  hummingbirds  to  our  very  doors. 

Water  should  be  provided  as  well  as  food.  Dishes 
and  pans  kept  filled  with  a  fresh  supply  during  the  hot  days 
of  summer  will  insure  the  visits  of  dozens  of  our  most  charm- 
ing songsters.  Common  tin  milk  pans  or  granite  baking 
dishes  serve  the  purpose.  The  water  should  vary  from  an 


BIRD   STUDY  313 


inch  to  two  or  three  in  depth.  It.  is  best  to  set  the  pans 
on  blocks  or  stakes  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  so  that  they 
will  be  out  of  the  reach  of  cats. 

Winter  birds  may  be  kept  about  our  homes  by  fastening 
up  in  trees  suet  or  long  shank  bones  sawed  in  two  length- 
wise. Chickadees,  woodpeckers,  and  nuthatches  will  find 
the  feast,  especially  during  stormy  weather  when  the  doors 
to  their  own  larders  are  locked  with  snow  and  sleet. 

Government  Publications:  Some  Common  Birds  in  their 
Relation  to  Agriculture.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  34;  The 
Horned  Larks  and  their  Relation  to  Agriculture;  The  Food 
of  Nestling  Birds;  Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers;  The  Blue  jay 
and  Its  Food;  The  Meadow  Lark  and  Baltimore  Oriole. 

Helpful  Books:  Birds  of  Village  and  Field,  Florence 
Merriam;  Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Man,  Weed  and  Dear- 
lorn;  Handbook  of  North  American  Birds,  Chapman. 

Colored  Bird  Plates  may  be  obtained  for  two  cents  each 
]rom  A.  W.  Mum  ford,  Chicago. 


I 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 

SCHOOL   GARDENS 

THE  school  garden,  perhaps  more  than  any  other 
phase  of  nature  work,  seems  to  supply  a  natural  demand 
irrespective  of  locality.  It  has  a  definite  mission  to  fulfill 
in  the  city,  as  well  as  in  the  village  and  rural  school. 
While  its  purposes  may  differ  in  different  schools,  its  value 
as  a  factor  in  education  is  rarely  questioned.  It  is  worth 
while  not  only  because  of  its  practical  bearings,  but  because 
it  is  exceptionally  valuable  on  its  educative  and  aesthetic 
side. 

The  location  of  the  school,  the  size  of  the  garden  plot, 
and  the  number  of  children  must  largely  determine  the 
method  of  procedure  in  the  management  of  any  garden. 
If  the  size  permits,  each  grade  should  have  a  definite  plot 
set  apart  for  its  use.  This  should  be  divided  into  beds  of 
suitable  size;  four  by  ten  feet  with  paths  two  feet  wide 
between  make  a  workable  arrangement.  So  far  as  possible 
each  child  should  be  made  responsible  for  the  care  of  one 
bed.  At  the  same  time  he  should  feel  a  class  interest  in 
the  entire  plot.  The  work  of  preparing  the  soil  and  form- 
ing the  beds  should  be  done  by  the  children  so  far  as  pos- 
sible. 

Vegetables  as  well  as  flowering  plants  should  be  rep- 
resented in  each  plot.  It  is  not  well  to  have  the  children 
attempt  to  grow  too  many  different  kinds  of  plants  at  one 


SCHOOL   GARDENS  315 

time.  The  work  may  be  easily  made  progressive,  so  that 
new  plants  are  grown  each  year  and  not  familiar  ones 
repeatedly.  This  in  itself  helps  intensify  the  interest  of 
the  pupils.  For  the  primary  children  plants  that  have 
large  seeds,  that  are  easily  grown,  and  that  give  quick 
results  are  best.  The  work  may  be  made  of  more  value  if 
the  children  are  trying  to  solve  some  definite  problems  in 
growing  their  plants.  These  problems  must  necessarily 
be  very  simple  for  the  younger  children,  but  should  increase 
in  complexity  from  year  to  year. 

Indoor  exercises  must  accompany  the  outdoor  work 
if  the  school  garden  accomplishes  all  that  it  should.  Often 
a  preliminary  lesson  is  indispensable.  In  this  the  children 
decide  sometimes  by  experiment,  sometimes  by  discussion, 
the  special  method  of  treatment  for  the  plant  under  con- 
sideration. They  also  help  decide  how  the  various  plants 
are  to  be  arranged  in  the  beds.  They  should  draw  a  plan 
of  their  garden  indicating  this  arrangement. 

If  space  permits,  a  portion  of  the  ground  should  be  set 
apart  as  a  fruit  garden.  In  this  all  the  different  kinds  of 
fruit  that  it  is  possible  to  grow  in  the  locality  should  be 
planted.  A  few  rows  of  trees  with  small  fruit  between  will 
utilize  all  the  ground.  A  space  should  be  left  for  a  small 
nursery  in  which  to  exemplify  different  methods  of  propa- 
gation. Another  plot  may  well  be  reserved  for  the  purpose 
of  growing  industrial  plants  such  as  cereals,  fiber  plants, 
forage  crops,  legumes,  medicinal  and  kitchen  herbs.  An 
experimental  plot  tended  by  the  older  pupils  will  be  found 
of  great  value.  In  this,  problems  of  soil  and  seed  may  be 
worked  out  and  new  varieties  tested. 

Some  of  the  plants  selected,  both  vegetables  and  flower- 


316    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

ing  plants,  should  be  those  that  require  their  seeds  to  be 
started  in  a  hot  bed  or  greenhouse.  If  neither  of  these  is 
accessible,  the  seeds  may  be  grown  in  the  schoolroom 
window  garden  and  transplanted  into  the  school  garden. 
In  some  places  the  garden  is  too  small  to  make  it  practi- 
cable to  grow  all  the  different  plants  suggested  above.  If 
the  area  is  so  small  that  it  requires  several  grades  to  work 
together,  some  valuable  work  may  still  be  done.  Vege- 
tables, some  flowering  plants,  and  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant industrial  plants  may  be  grown.  The  work  should 
be  made  progressive  from  year  to  year  instead  of  from 
grade  to  grade  as  in  larger  gardens.  A  small  corner  should 
always  be  reserved  for  the  simple  plants  grown  by  the  little 
children.  In  the  fall  a  portion  of  the  ground  may  be  cleared 
off  and  set  out  in  tulip  and  hyacinth  bulbs  for  spring 
blooming.  The  same  bulbs  may  be  used  year  after  year  if 
they  are  taken  up  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  plants  are 
through  blooming  and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  for  the 
summer.  Even  in  a  small  garden  a  portion  of  the  ground 
may  be  devoted  to  geraniums  and  coleus,  from  which  the 
children  may  make  cuttings  to  take  home  for  winter 
blooming. 

Proper  arrangement  and  planting  must  be  followed  by 
care  and  cultivation  of  the  plants.  The  children  must 
learn  when  and  how  to  water  transplanted  plants,  how  to 
distinguish  weeds  from  the  crop  plants;  that  the  best  time 
to  pull  weeds  is  when  the  soil  is  moist;  and  that  the  ground 
needs  hoeing  and  pulverizing  even  if  there  are  no  weeds  to 
kill.  Every  school  that  attempts  gardening  should  own 
the  tools  necessary  to  carry  on  the  work.  These  are  a  few 
shovels,  several  rakes  and  hoes,  not  too  heavy,  some  hand- 


SCHOOL  GARDENS  317 

weeders  and  trowels,  a  line,  measuring  tape,  and  watering 
pot.  An  excellent  lesson  that  goes  with  the  garden  work 
is  the  care  of  the  tools.  There  should  be  some  place  ar- 
ranged for  the  tools  to  be  kept  when  not  in  use.  The 
children  after  using  them  should  clean  them,  occasionally 
oil  them,  and  hang  them  up.  A  few  small  wooden  paddles 
made  by  the  older  boys  will  be  found  helpful  in  removing 
soil  from  the  tools. 

If  the  school  garden  accomplishes  all  that  it  is  capable 
of  accomplishing,  its  influence  will  not  end  with  the  school, 
but  be  carried  over  into  the  home.  The  instruction  gained 
at  school  will  find  its  practical  application  in  the  individual 
home  gardens  of  the  children.  The  children  should  be 
encouraged  in  every  way  to  start  home  gardens.  Seeds 
may  be  procured  at  very  low  rates  from  several  reliable 
seed  firms.  The  Federal  Government  sends  out  packages 
of  both  flowering  plants  and  vegetables  that  may  be  ob- 
tained through  your  congressman.  Certain  experiments 
may  be  carried  on  at  home  with  better  results  than  in  the 
school  garden.  Special  attention  should  be  given  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fall  term  to  reports  of  observations  made 
during  the  summer  vacation.  An  exhibit  in  the  fall  of 
plants,  flowers,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  seeds,  from  both 
home  and  school  garden,  will  prove  an  excellent  incentive 
for  keeping  up  the  work  during  the  vacation. 

The  following  illustrates  a  plan  to  make  garden  work 
progressive  and  at  the  same  time  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  children  at  various  stages  in  their  development. 

The  primary  children  who  are  interested  chiefly  in 
activities  in  which  they  participate,  and  who  gain  most  of 
their  ideas  through  these  activities,  may  plant  seeds,  care 


318    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

for  the  plants,  and  gather  their  flowers  and  fruit,  with  little 
attention  to  anything  except  the  doing  of  the  work.  For 
them  plants  should  be  chosen  that  yield  large  seeds,  bright 
colors,  and  quick  results. 

In  the  third  grade,  while  propagation  by  seeds  is  con- 
tinued, the  children  may  work  out  some  of  the  simple 
principles  upon  which  germination  and  plant  growth 
depend.  In  this  grade  the  selection  of  seeds  from  desir- 
able types  may  be  first  considered.  Thus  the  children 
may  choose,  for  example,  seeds  from  the  tomatoes  having 
the  best  flavor  and  most  meat.  The  children  may  save 
these  seeds,  raise  the  plants  in  the  greenhouse  or  school- 
room, and  transplant  either  to  the  school  or  home  garden. 

In  the  fourth  grade  propagation  by  bulbs,  tubers,  and 
roots,  such  as  tulips,  onions,  potatoes,  and  dahlias  may  be 
introduced. 

The  fifth  grade  may  be  set  the  problem  of  the  working 
out  of  the  life  history  of  biennials.  The  beet  is  a  good 
type.  Other  biennials  should  be  grown. 

Among  other  things  the  sixth-grade  children  may  study 
the  culture  of  plants  in  a  cold  frame.  They  should  assist 
in  making  and  placing  the  cold  frame  and  in  caring  for  the 
ventilation,  watering,  etc.  Good  vegetables  to  grow  in  a 
cold  frame  are  members  of  the  cabbage  family,  including 
several  species  and  flowering  plants  such  as  cosmos,  pansy, 
sweet  scabious. 

The  seventh  and  eighth  grade  children  may  grow  some 
of  the  more  difficult  plants,  such  as  sweet  potato,  melons, 
okra,  celery,  eggplant,  spinach,  and  asparagus.  They  may 
work  out  by  experiment  simple  problems  connected  with 
the  relationship  of  the  plants  -to  their  environment.  More 


SCHOOL   GARDENS 


319 


quantitative  work  may  be  done  in  these  grades,  such  as  the 
careful  measurement  of  the  corn  plots  to  estimate  the 
fraction  of  an  acre  which  they  represent,  the  weighing  of 
ears  to  find  the  number  required  to  make  a  bushel,  the 
number  required  to  plant  an  acre,  percentage  of  grain  to  the 
ear,  percentage  of  cob,  etc. 

Propagation  by  means  of  cuttings  may  be  begun  in  a 
simple  way  by  third-grade  children,  but  in  the  seventh 
grade  a  detailed  study  should  be  made  of  soft  and  hard- 
wood cuttings,  with  the  forming  of  callus,  rooting,  storing 
of  hard-wood  cuttings,  etc. 

In  the  eighth  grade  part  of  the  work  of  the  boys  and 
girls  may  be  differentiated.  The  boys  may  work  out 
special  problems  in  the  culture  of  farm  crops  and  vege- 
tables, while  the  girls  may  plan  and  work  out  groups  of 
color  schemes  in  the  flower  garden. 

This  indicates  briefly  what  work  may  be  done  in  the 
garden  proper,  but  it  does  not  indicate  the  various  lines  of 
work  which  may  radiate  from  it  as  a  center.  Instead  of 
studying  insects,  certain  birds,  weeds,  and  soils  as  isolated 
topics,  they  may  be  studied  in  the  garden  in  connection 
with  the  plants  to  which  they  are  biologically  and  econom- 
ically related.  This  organization  of  material  unifies  and 
increases  its  value  from  an  educational  standpoint.  Indeed, 
if  the  full  purpose  of  the  garden  work  is  carried  out,  it 
means  more  than  the  training  of  the  hand  in  doing  its  part 
of  the  work  successfully  and  skillfully.  It  means  a  train- 
ing of  the  eye  to  see  things  as  they  are,  a  training  of  the 
mind  to  think  logically  and  independently,  to  draw  truthful 
conclusions,  and  to  recognize  the  dignity  of  this  work. 


CHAPTER   XL 

SOME   FUNDAMENTAL   MISCONCEPTIONS 

ANY  teacher  using  plants  or  animals  as  materials  must 
be  much  hampered  unless  she  feels  herself  on  pretty  sure 
ground  with  reference  to  what  may  be  called  the  funda- 
mental conceptions  in  biology.  These  are,  especially,  the 
things  which  pertain  to  all  living  beings;  to  plants  and 
animals  alike.  With  reference  to  many  of  these  the  best 
information  is,  of  course,  inadequate,  and  we  yet  remain  in 
ignorance  of  the  real  fundamentals.  None  the  less,  the 
forceful  teacher  in  nature  study  cannot  afford  to  get  along 
with  the  antiquated  and  erroneous  conceptions  which 
remain  remarkably  prevalent.  She  must  be  posted  as  to 
modern  ideas  concerning  such  matters  as  the  relation  of 
light  and  air  and  food  and  water  to  life,  the  adaptations  of 
organisms  to  their  environment,  and  the  evolution  of  new 
kinds.  Otherwise  her  touch  is  apt  to  be  decidedly  un- 
certain and  wavering  when  it  comes  to  dealing  with  many 
critical  matters.  However  thorough  may  be  her  familiarity 
with  details  of  structure  and  function  in  particular  forms, 
unless  she  has  a  tolerably  firm  grasp  upon  these  funda- 
mentals her  teachings  may  give  birth  to  equally  funda- 
mental misconceptions.  However  well  the  details  may  be 
taught  or  elucidated,  the  value  of  such  teaching  is  under- 
mined if  there  is  involved  a  misapprehension  of  general 
biological  laws.  It  is  a  case  of  building  on  very  uncertain 

320 


SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  MISCONCEPTIONS      321 

foundations,  and  the  pupil  often  comes  to  look  at  all  living 
things  from  a  wrong  angle. 

All  living  things  work  in  intimate  relationship  with  the 
forces  of  the  physical  world.  Life  itself  can  do  nothing 
save  as  it  draws  energy  from  the  lifeless.  The  life  stuff  of 
plants  and  animals  establishes  relationships  with  sunlight 
and  the  air,  with  laws  of  diffusion  and  evaporation,  and 
life  depends  upon  taking  advantage  of  these  forces,  upon 
establishing  these  relationships.  As  skilful  engineers  have 
harnessed  water  power,  and  steam,  and  electricity  to  do 
their  bidding,  so  the  life  stuff  of  plants  and  animals  har- 
nesses similar  forces,  till  life  itself  is  primarily  a  thing  of 
adjustment  to  external  forces.  It  is  these  common  rela- 
tionships which  we  cannot  afford  to  misunderstand  if  we 
are  to  teach  intelligently  about  plants  and  animals. 

It  is  evaporation  which  does  the  work  of  delivering  to 
the  corn  leaf  the  materials  which,  transformed,  will  fill  the 
swelling  kernels.  It  is  because  the  laws  of  diffusion  must 
be  satisfied  that  materials  are  moved  in  the  plant  body, 
and  the  plant  is  served  by  a  system  of  transportation  which 
requires  no  expenditure  of  its  own  energy,  a  method  which 
in  economy  and  efficiency  excels  the  method  of  the  throb- 
bing heart.  It  is  sunlight  which  runs  the  delicate  and 
mysterious  food-making  mechanism  in  the  leaves. 

To  study  biology  we  must  study  physics  and  chemistry. 
Nature  study  and  elementary  agriculture  must  include 
lessons  exemplifying  the  operation  of  physical  laws  and 
simple  chemical  reactions.  There  is  a  common  core 
which  runs  through  the  activities  of  all  living  things  what- 
ever their  special  forms  and  structures,  and  it  is  with  this 
common  core,  in  so  far  as  we  know  it,  with  the  few  proc- 


322    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

esses  common  to  all  forms,  that  the  teacher  needs  to  be  on 
terms  of  comfortable  familiarity. 

The  prevalence  among  grade  teachers  of  misconceptions 
as  to  certain  of  these  fundamentals  is  striking.  Inasmuch, 
however,  as  grade  teachers  are  being  called  upon  more  and 
more  to  teach  about  plants  and  animals,  and  few  have  op- 
portunity to  take  special  courses  in  preparation  therefor, 
it  becomes  imperative  to  provide,  if  possible,  some  short 
cut  to  an  adequate  conception  of  these  matters.  Other- 
wise the  teaching  will  be  either  superficial  or  wrong. 

A  few  examples  may  serve  to  make  the  point  of  the 
preceding  paragraph  more  clear.  The  writer  finds  that 
far  more  than  half  of  some  hundreds  of  country  teachers 
who  have  been  tested  were  firmly  convinced  that  plants 
"breathe  carbon  dioxide"  while  animals  "  breathe  oxygen," 
and  that  leaves  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  lungs  of  plants. 
Bees  are  said  to  fertilize  clover,  the  processes  of  fertiliza- 
tion and  pollination  being  in  no  sense  distinguished.  The 
conception  that  "food  burns  in  the  body"  appears  to  be 
very  general,  while  rare  indeed  is  the  teacher  who  is  not 
quite  clear  that  air,  sunlight,  and  water  serve  plants  as  food, 
just  as  proteids,  fats,  and  carbohydrates  serve  animals. 
The  idea  that  organs  or  the  rudiments  of  them  must  have 
preceded  the  use  of  them  for  some  definite  purpose  is  re- 
ceived in  teachers'  classes  as  novel  and  diverting.  Firmly 
intrenched  is  the  idea  that  everything  in  nature  already  has 
its  use  or  else  cannot  be.  Animate  things  are  conceived  of 
and  interpreted  like  the  inanimate  creations  of  man;  like 
machines  into  which  each  cunning  part  has  been  fitted  to 
fulfil  a  certain  definite  function.  On  the  other  hand,  with 
naive  inconsistency,  there  is  general  confidence  that  Bur- 


• 


SOME   FUNDAMENTAL  MISCONCEPTIONS      323 

bank  can  get  plants  to  do  just  what  he  likes,  with  very  little 
if  any  limitation  to  variation.  The  comparison  of  living 
things  to  machines  and  engines  and  furnaces,  and  of 
simpler  forms  of  life  with  ourselves,  has  obscured  the 
facts  rather  than  made  them  clear.  For  all  this  we  appear 
to  have  some  of  the  elementary  "physiologies"  largely  to 
thank.  To  teach  things  easily  they  have  often  taught  them 
wrong.  The  two  chapters  which  follow  are  devoted  to 
some  of  the  topics  concerning  which  such  misconceptions 
are  prevalent. 


CHAPTER   XLI 

THE   GENERAL  LIFE    PROCESSES 

IT  is  important  to  keep  in  mind  that  the  fundamental 
life  processes  of  plants  and  animals  are  the  same  and  that 
whether  life  manifests  itself  in  a  plant  or  in  an  animal  it 
works  in  the  same  way. 

The  reason  for  this  becomes  plain  when  it  is  known  that 
there  is  only  one  living  substance,  which  is  known  as 
protoplasm.  Protoplasm  is  not  life  itself,  but  it  is  the 
material  through  which  life  manifests  itself.  Huxley 
called  it  "the  physical  basis  of  life."  Of  course  proto- 
plasm is  a  substance  of  supreme  interest,  and  constant 
effort  is  being  inade  to  discover  its  composition,  but  thus 
far  little  more  has  been  found  out  than  that  it  is  enormously 
complex.  It  breaks  up  into  numerous  compounds,  but 
how  these  are  put  together  in  the  living  substance  is  not 
known.  It  is  this  protoplasm  that  makes  all  the  other  sub- 
stances and  structures  of  plant  and  animal  bodies. 

In  general  protoplasm  occurs  in  very  small  masses 
known  as  protoplasts,  and  the  ordinary  plant  or  animal 
body  is  made  up  of  thousands  or  millions  of  these  proto- 
plasts. Each  protoplast  usually  builds  some  kind  of  wall 
about  itself,  and  this  wall-encased  protoplast  is  called  a  cell. 
In  case  the  protoplast  has  no  wall  it  is  usually  called  a 
naked  cell,  and  these  are  very  common  especially  in  animal 
bodies.  These  cells  are  often  spoken  of  as  the  units  of 

324 


THE  GENERAL  LIFE  PROCESSES  325 

structure  in  living  things,  because  the  whole  body  is  com- 
posed of  them,  variously  fitted  together.  Through  the  walls 
the  protoplasts  connect  with  one  another  by  very  delicate 
strands  of  protoplasm,  so  that  in  reality  the  living  substance 
in  a  plant  or  animal  body  is  a  continuous  substance. 

Each  protoplast  is  very  definitely  and  intricately 
organized,  but  for  our  purpose  we  may  disregard  all  other 
organization  except  the  nucleus  and  the  cytoplasm.  The 
nucleus  is  a  more  compact  mass  of  protoplasm,  usually 
near  the  center  of  the  protoplast.  The  more  fluid  proto- 
plasm which  envelops  it  and  which  forms  a  wall  about 
itself  is  the  cytoplasm.  In  it  usually  are  found  floating 
particles  of  various  kinds,  but  these  are  not  living. 

In  order  to  do  its  work  the  protoplast  must  be  saturated 
with  water,  for  every  substance  that  passes  into  it  or  passes 
out  from  it  must  be  in  solution,  or  at  least  diffusible  in 
water.  In  fact  the  whole  plant  or  animal  body  may  be 
conceived  of  as  a  continuous  body  of  water  in  which  solid 
particles  are  arranged.  Frequently  the  protoplasm  en- 
counters conditions  unfavorable  for  its  work,  such  as  cold 
or  drought,  and  then  it  loses  water  and  passes  into  what  is 
known  as  the  quiescent  condition.  When  suitable  condi- 
tions return,  water  is  taken  in  and  the  customary  activity 
of  the  protoplasm  is  resumed. 

To  get  some  general  notion  of  the  ordinary  work  of 
protoplasm  one  may  follow  the  activities  of  a  tree  from  the 
germination  of  the  seed  to  the  production  of  seed.  A  plant 
is  selected  because  a  very  important  process  (food  making) 
goes  on  in  green  plants  and  does  not  occur  in  animals,  and 
none  of  the  fundamental  processes  which  occur  in  animals 
are  omitted  in  plants. 


326    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

In  the  cells  of  the  very  young  plant  (embryo)  within  the 
seed  the  protoplasts  are  in  the  quiescent  condition,  and 
food  is  also  stored  in  them.  We  will  assume  that  this 
stored  food  is  in  the  form  of  starch,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  starch  is  only  one  form  of  stored  food.  In 
this  condition  "the  seed  awaits  the  suitable  conditions  of 
temperature,  moisture,  and  air  which  will  stimulate  its 
protoplasts  to  activity  again.  When  the  proper  combina- 
tion of  these  conditions  arrives,  water  passes  into  the  seed 
in  relatively  great  abundance,  and  the  seed  may  be  ob- 
served to  swell.  This  means  that  the  protoplasts  are  re- 
gaining water  and  with  it  the  structure  for  work. 

Then  the  starch  food  is  attacked,  and  this  involves  the 
very  important  process  known  as  digestion.  Starch  is  not 
soluble,  and  therefore  cannot  pass  through  cell  walls  and 
into  protoplasts.  It  must  be  transformed  into  a  soluble 
substance,  and  this  transformation  of  insoluble  food  into 
soluble  or  diffusible  food  is  digestion.  Digestion  puts  food 
into  such  form  that  it  can  be  carried  through  the  bodies  of 
plants  and  animals  to  the  places  where  it  is  to  be  used.  In 
the  case  of  starch  the  transformation  is  into  a  sugar,  and 
the  active  agent  in  causing  this  transformation  is  a  peculiar 
substance  called  an  enzyme.  Enzymes  are  manufactured 
by  protoplasts.  There  are  many  different  kinds  of  enzymes 
in  living  things,  just  as  there  are  many  different  kinds  of 
substances  in  foods  which  are  to  be  transformed  in  this 
way.  The  usual  enzyme  which  converts  starch  into  sugar 
in  seeds  is  called  diastase,  and  all  the  enzymes  that  have 
been  separated  out  so  as  to  be  studied  have  also  received 
names. 

When  the  digestion  of  starch  has  transformed  it  into 


THE  GENERAL  LIFE  PROCESSES  327 

sugar  in  the  seed,  this  sugar  passes  in  solution  to  the  pro- 
toplasts that  are  working.  Then  follows  the  very  fun- 
damental process  called  assimilation.  The  protoplast  in 
manufacturing  things  is  constantly  transforming  its  own 
substance,  and  therefore  must  constantly  be  renewed. 
Therefore  it  receives  the  sugar  and  other  foods  that  come 
to  it  and  makes  protoplasm  out  of  them.  Of  course  this  is 
a  very  complicated  process,  and  we  do  not  know  how  it 
is  done.  We  do  know,  however,  that  it  is  done  by  a  series 
of  many  steps,  the  substances  becoming  more  and  more 
complex,  until  protoplasm  is  reached.  The  ordinary  food 
substances  nearest  to  protoplasm  are  the  proteids,  and  the 
sugars  and  starches  (carbohydrates)  must  be  built  into 
proteids  on  their  way  to  protoplasm.  Briefly  stated,  there- 
fore, assimilation  is  the  transformation  of  food  into  proto- 
plasm, and  thus  the  working  protoplasts  are  perpetually 
renewed. 

This  brings  us  to  the  most  important  and  least  under- 
stood of  all  the  living  processes.  It  is  called  respiration, 
but  the  name  is  in  such  common  misuse  that  it  is  more  apt 
to  deceive  than  to  explain.  The  protoplasm  works  by 
constructing  things  from  its  own  body,  and  in  this  breaking 
up  of  its  body  to  form  simpler  compounds  oxygen  takes  an 
important  part,  and  this  oxygen  is  taken  in  from  the  air. 
Among  the  simpler  compounds  produced  some  are  wastes, 
among  which  the  gas,  carbon  dioxide,  which  escapes  into 
the  air,  is  most  conspicuous.  On  account  of  this  fact 
respiration  is  often  described  as  the  taking  in  of  oxygen 
and  the  giving  out  of  carbon  dioxide,  but  this  exchange  of 
gases  is  only  the  external  indication  that  respiration,  the 
breaking  up  of  protoplasm,  is  going  on.  Respiration  is 
22 


328         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

essential  to  life,  for  unless  the  protoplasm  can  work  none 
of  the  phenomena  of  life  appear.  The  germinating  seed 
shows  that  respiration  is  going  on  by  taking  in  oxygen  from 
the  air  and  giving  out  carbon  dioxide. 

The  conspicuous  work  done  by  the  protoplasts  in  the 
seed  is  the  formation  of  new  cells,  thus  causing  the  little 
plant  to  grow.  In  this  work  of  forming  new  cells,  each 
protoplast  divides,  beginning  with  the  nucleus,  and  a  wall  is 
laid  down  between  the  two  halves.  Then  each  half  in- 
creases in  size  until  it  becomes  as  large  as  the  original  cell. 
If  every  protoplast  in  the  embryo  should  divide  in  this  way, 
the  result  would  be  an  embryo  twice  as  large  as  before.  In 
this  way  the  young  plant  increases  in  size,  and  finally 
bursts  through  the  seed  coat. 

Thus  the  protoplasts,  by  digesting  food,  by  assimilating 
it,  and  by  constantly  respiring  cause  the  plant  to  grow  from 
the  embryo  to  the  full-grown  tree.  Long  before  this  growth 
is  completed,  in  fact  soon  after  the  plant  escapes  from  the 
seed,  another  process  is  necessary.  The  store  of  food  laid 
up  in  the  seed  is  soon  exhausted,  and  new  food  must  be 
provided. 

The  tree,  as  all  green  plants,  has  the  power  of  manu- 
facturing food,  and  this  process  is  called  photosynthesis. 
This  work  can  be  done  only  by  the  green  parts  of  plants, 
and  since  the  leaves  constitute  the  larger  part  of  the  green 
tissue,  they  are  properly  spoken  of  as  the  organs  of  photo- 
synthesis or  the  organs  of  food  manufacture.  This  process 
is  of  supreme  importance,  for  all  life  is  dependent  upon  it. 
This  means  that  green  plants  make  more  food  than  they 
use,  and  upon  this  surplus  all  other  plants  and  all  animals 
live. 


THE   GENERAL  LIFE  PROCESSES  329 

The  materials  out  of  which  food  is  made  are  carbon 
dioxide  and  water.  The  former  passes  directly  into  the 
leaves  from  the  air,  while  the  latter  passes  into  the  roots 
from  the  soil,  is  carried  up  through  the  stem,  and  so  reaches 
the  leaves.  For  this  movement  of  water  a  special  region 
of  the  plant  is  developed.  This  region  is  known  as  the 
wood.  In  herbs  it  appears  as  fibers.  It  is  continuous  from 
the  root,  through  the  stem,  and  out  into  the  leaves  where  it 
takes  the  form  of  veins.  This  forms  a  very  efficient  water 
transporting  system,  but  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
mechanics  of  this  "ascent  of  sap"  is  yet  lacking. 

The  protoplasts  of  the  leaves  contain  green  bodies 
chiefly  composed  of  protoplasm  which  are  called  chloro- 
plasts.  The  substance  in  them  which  gives  them  their 
green  color  is  called  chlorophyll,  and  it  is  these  chloroplasts 
which  do  this  work  of  food  making.  The  protoplasts  of 
the  leaves  receive  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  and  their 
chloroplasts  build  these  substances  into  food,  such  as  sugar 
and  starch. 

Thus  we  see  that  water  and  carbon  dioxide  are  not 
really  plant  foods  as  is  so  often  stated,  but  they  are  the  raw 
materials  out  of  which  the  food  is  manufactured. 

The  chloroplasts  can  work  only  in  the  light,  and  hence 
leaves  seem  to  seek  the  light.  Food  making  stops  at  night. 
Also,  in  this  process,  since  there  is  more  oxygen  in  the  raw 
materials  than  is  needed  in  the  finished  product,  some  of 
the  oxygen  is  given  off  into  the  air  as  a  waste.  This  has 
led  to  a  very  general  misunderstanding  of  this  process. 
Since  carbon  dioxide  is  taken  in  and  oxygen  given  off,  and 
since  this  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  what  occurs  in  respira- 
tion, it  was  long  thought  that  plant  respiration  was  exactly 


330         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

the  opposite  of  animal  respiration.  Real  respiration  in 
plants  was  entirely  overlooked  because  the  volume  of  the 
gases  used  in  food  making  is  so  much  greater  than  that  used 
in  respiration  as  to  quite  obscure  the  latter  process  except 
at  night. 

We  should  now  see  clearly  that  all  living  things  "breathe 
in"  oxygen  and  " breathe  out"  carbon  dioxide,  for  this 
means  respiration  which  is  essential  to  all  life.  But  green 
plants,  quite  in  addition  to  this  process,  also  can  do  the 
work  of  food  making,  upon  which  all  the  rest  of  the  living 
world  depends,  and  which  involves  its  own  characteristic 
intake  and  outgo  of  gases  quite  independently  of  respira- 
tion. 

It  is  well  to  contrast  sharply  this  photosynthesis  with 
respiration,  for  they  are  very  often  confused.  Photo- 
synthesis requires  light,  involves  an  intake  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  an  outgo  of  oxygen,  goes  on  only  in  cells  con- 
taining chloroplasts,  manufactures  food,  and  can  be  sus- 
pended periodically  (as  at  night).  Respiration  does  not 
require  light,  involves  an  intake  of  oxygen  and  an  outgo  of 
carbon  dioxide,  goes  on  in  every  living  cell,  consumes  food, 
and  must  go  on  while  life  goes  on. 

The  processes  just  described  (photosynthesis,  diges- 
tion, assimilation,  respiration)  have  to  do  with  the  ordinary 
life  and  growth  of  the  tree,  and  they  are  often  spoken  of 
together  as  the  work  of  nutrition.  The  activities  of  plants, 
however,  include  not  only  nutrition,  but  also  reproduction. 
The  work  of  nutrition  provides  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
individual;  the  work  of  reproduction  provides  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  race.  The  tree,  which  we  have  selected 
as  a  representative  plant,  provides  for  reproduction  by  the 


THE   GENERAL  LIFE  PROCESSES  331 

formation  of  flowers.  It  is  impossible  to  say  always  just 
what  a  flower  is,  but  for  our  purpose  it  is  easy  enough. 
The  flowers  of  our  tree  contain  stamens  and  pistils,  either 
both  in  the  same  flower  or  separated  in  different  flowers. 
It  is  these  stamens  and  pistils  that  contain  the  structures 
essential  to  reproduction.  The  stamen  produces  pollen 
grains,  and  within  the  pistil  there  are  one  or  more  ovules 
which  will  become  seeds,  if  fertilization  is  secured.  Asso- 
ciated in  the  flower  with  these  stamens  and  pistils  there 
may  be  petals  and  sepals,  or  only  one  of  them.  These  are 
protective  structures  and  perhaps  attractive,  so  that  in  the 
wrork  of  reproduction  they  are  entirely  subordinate  and 
hence  not  always  present. 

The  pollen  is  carried  from  frhe  stamens  to  the  pistil 
of  the  same  flower,  or  of  some  more  or  less  distant  flower, 
the  usual  agents  of  transfer  being  the  wind  and  insects. 
After  lodging  upon  the  receptive  surface  (stigma)  of  the 
carpel,  the  pollen  grain  sends  out  a  tube  which  penetrates 
the  carpel,  reaches  an  ovule,  and  entering  the  ovule,  finally 
comes  in  contact  with  the  egg  contained  in  the  ovule. 
Then  the  tip  of  the  pollen  tube  discharges  its  contents,  the 
egg  is  fertilized,  and  this  fertilized  egg  develops  the  embryo 
of  a  new  plant. 

While  the  embryo*  is  developing  within  the  ovule, 
changes  are  taking  place  in  the  outer  region  of  the  ovule, 
by  which  a  hard  coat  is  formed.  This  hard  coat  finally 
hermetically  seals  the  growing  embryo  within,  which  then 
stops  growth;  the  whole  structure  being  now  called  the 
seed.  The  conditions  under  which  the  embryo  can  resume 
growth  and  develop  into  a  complete  plant  were  considered 
at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 


332 


NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 


There  are  seed-producing  plants  whose  ovules  are  not 
enclosed  by  pistils;  so  that  in  them  the  pollen  grains  come 
directly  in  contact  with  the  ovules,  and  there  is  much  less 
extensive  development  of  pollen  tubes.  These  plants  are 
the  pines,  spruces,  etc.,  known  commonly  as  "  evergreens," 
and  scientifically  as  gymnosperms,  which  name  means 
"  naked  seeds."  The  other  and  far  larger  group  of  seed 
plants  is  called  angiosperms,  which  name  means  "  enclosed 
seeds." 

There  are  also  very  many  plants  that  do  not  produce 
seeds  at  all  in  connection  with  their  reproduction.  The  vis- 
ble  reproductive  bodies  are  the  so-called  "  spores."  These 
seedless  plants,  therefore,  are  sometimes  called  "spore 
plants";  but  this  is  unfortunate,  because  seed  plants  are 
also  spore-producing  plants.  The  difference  in  the  two 
cases  is  not  that  one  group  produces  seeds  and  the  other 
produces  spores;  but  that  although  both  groups  produce 
spores,  in  one  of  them  the  work  of  the  spores  results  in 
seed  formation. 


CHAPTER   XLII 

EXPLANATIONS   OF  EVOLUTION 

THE  following  chapter  indicates  the  successive  appear- 
ance of  the  great  groups  of  plants,  beginning  with  simple 
algae  and  ending  with  complex  seed  plants.  This  is  an 
illustration  of  what  is  called  organic  evolution,  which  means 
that  the  plants  and  animals  of  to-day  are  the  modified 
descendants  of  earlier  forms.  This  theory  of  descent,  as 
organic  evolution  is  often  called,  is  now  universally  ac- 
cepted by  biologists,  but  they  differ  widely  among  them- 
selves as  to  how  the  modifications  have  been  brought 
about.  The  theory  of  evolution  is  as  old  as  our  record  of 
human  thought,  and  no  man  can  be  cited  as  its  author. 
The  names  that  have  been  conspicuously  associated  with  it 
are  the  names  of  men  who  have  tried  to  explain  it.  All 
their  explanations  may  prove  to  be  inadequate,  but  still  the 
theory  of  evolution  will  remain  to  be  explained. 

The  attempted  explanations  of  evolution  have  been 
numerous,  but  four  great  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  theory 
are  recognized,  each  introduced  by  a  new  explanation 
which  changed  the  point  of  view. 

i.  The  first  epoch  was  introduced  in  the  last  decade  of 
the  eighteenth  century  when  three  men  independently 
proposed  the  same  explanation  of  evolution.  They  were 
Erasmus  Darwin  of  England,  St.  Hilaire  of  France,  and 
Goethe  in  Germany.  Their  explanation  was  called  the 

333 


334         NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

4 '  theory  of  environment,"  for  they  believed  that  the  effect 
of  environment  would  explain  all  the  changes  necessary  in 
passing  from  one  species  to  another.  They  had  observed 
the  seasonal  changes  in  the  plumage  of  birds  and  in  the  coats 
of  mammals,  and  inferred  that  plants  and  animals  are 
molded  by  changes  in  their  environment,  as  clay  can  be 
molded  by  the  hand.  This  explanation  was  soon  found 
to  be  entirely  inadequate,  for  the  necessary  changes  are 
too  deep-seated  to  be  brought  about  by  such  a  superficial 
agency.  But  "environment"  has  ever  since  played  a  very 
real,  even  if  a  very  subordinate,  part  in  every  evolutionary 
theory. 

2.  The  next  epoch  was  introduced  in  the  first  decades 
of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  announcement  of  the  same 
explanation  by  two  men;  Lamarck  of  France,  and  Tre- 
viranus  of  Germany.  It  may  be  called  the  "theory  of  the 
effect  of  use  and  disuse,"  although  Lamarck  called  it  the 
"theory  of  appetency,"  which  means  the  theory  of  desires. 
It  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  use  develops  an  organ  and  dis- 
use results  in  its  dwindling  and  possible  disappearance. 
For  the  sake  of  illustration  it  is  sometimes  called  "the 
law  of  the  blacksmith's  arm,"  because  it  is  well  known  that 
such  use  of  the  arm  develops  the  muscle,  and  that  disuse 
will  cause  a  muscle  to  shrivel  and  lose  its  power  of  funo- 
tioning.  This  explanation  of  evolution  was  thought  to  be 
deep-seated  enough,  for  it  could  apply  to  every  organ  of 
the  body.  Lamarck,  for  example,  imagined  an  animal, 
adapted  to  certain  conditions,  transferred  to  new  condi- 
tions that  would  mean  different  demands.  Certain  organs 
would  be  called  upon  persistently  that  were  not  so  im- 
portant under  the  old  conditions,  and  would  thus  be 


EXPLANATIONS   OF  EVOLUTION 


335 


developed.  Others,  important  before,  would  be  now  less 
called  upon,  and  would  begin  to  decline.  Thus  the  animal 
would  begin  to  change,  and  these  changes  would  be  handed 
down  to  its  progeny  and  increased  by  them,  and  so  on  until 
practically  a  new  animal  would  be  the  result. 

It  is  evident  that  this  explanation  depends  upon  what  is 
called  the  inheritance  of  " acquired  characters";  for  the 
progeny  must  start  with  all  the  gains  acquired  by  the 
parent,  and  not  be- compelled  to  start  over  again.  But, 
now  that  it  is  generally  agreed  that  such  acquired  charac- 
ters are  not  inherited,  the ' *  theory  of  appetency  "  finds  little 
support.  It  has  recently  been  revived  in  a  modified  form, 
but  this  lies  outside  our  purpose. 

3.  The  next  epoch  was  by  far  the  most  important  one 
in  its  results.  It  was  introduced  in  1859  ^7  tne  appearance 
of  a  book  by  Charles  Darwin,  entitled  "The  Origin  of 
Species  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection."  In  this  case  also 
the  theory  was  announced  by  another  observer  independ- 
ently, Alfred  Russel  Wallace.  When  Wallace  learned  that 
Darwin  had  had  the  theory  under  consideration  for  twenty 
years,  and  was  prepared  to  present  it  based  upon  a  won- 
derful collection  of  observations,  he  generously  withdrew 
from  its  further  development. 

This  epoch  was  the  most  important  one  because  the  new 
theory  revolutionized  biology,  and  in  fact  revolutionized  the 
point  of  view  in  almost  every  department  of  thought.  The 
greatness  of  Darwin  really  consisted  not  so  much  in  his 
theory  as  in  what  he  set  men  doing.  He  called  his  ex- 
planation "the  theory  of  natural  selection,"  but  it  has  been 
freely  spoken  of  as  "Darwinism."  It  has  been  the  con- 
spicuous explanation  of  evolution  for  fifty  years,  and  even 


336    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

if  it  should  now  be  found  inadequate,  its  place  in  the 
progress  of  knowledge  is  unparalleled. 

The  theory  of  Darwin  is  so  familiar  and  so  accessible 
that  a  brief  definition  of  it  should  suffice.  Darwin  ob- 
served that  the  " ratio  of  increase"  of  plants  and  animals  is 
so  high  that  many  more  forms  are  produced  than  can  pos- 
sibly exist.  This  leads  to  what  is  often  called  a  "struggle 
for  existence,"  for  out  of  thousands  of  plants  or  animals  that 
are  started  as  spores  or  seeds  or  eggs  only  a  single  one  will 
survive.  This  means  that  death  must  be  the  rule  and  life 
the  exception.  It  was  evident  that  this  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  living  forms  must  result  in  something  of  importance. 
Darwin  studied  extensively  the  work  of  plant  breeders  and 
of  animal  breeders,  and  showed  how  by  selection,  genera- 
tion after  generation,  they  could  greatly  modify  plants  and 
animals.  In  fact,  certain  domesticated  animals  and  cul- 
tivated plants  had  been  modified  so  extensively  that  the 
wild  forms  from  which  they  had  come  could  not  be  identi- 
fied. All  these  changes  were  made  possible  by  the  fact 
that  plants  and  animals  continually  vary.  No  plant  or 
animal  is  exactly  like  its  parent,  for  there  is  individuality 
as  well  as  similarity.  It  is  this  tendency  to  vary  that  the 
plant  breeder  and  the  animal  breeder  took  hold  of,  selecting 
those  variations  that  they  prefer  and  increasing  them  by 
further  breeding.  This,  of  course,  is  "  artificial  selection," 
and  Darwin  conceived  that  this  same  process  is  going  on  in 
nature  by  natural  selection.  Endless  variations  are  pro- 
duced, and  nature  selects  by  means  of  the  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, which  is  brought  about  by  the  high  ratio  of  in- 
crease. The  forms  selected  are  those  that  are  better 
adapted  to  their  surroundings  than  the  majority,  which 


EXPLANATIONS  OF  EVOLUTION  337 


perish.  Natural  selection  is  thus  said  to  result  in  the 
"survival  of  the  fittest,"  or  it  may  be  even  more  accurately 
described  as  the  "  destruction  of  the  unfit."  The  in- 
dividuals thus  preserved  hand  down  to  their  progeny  the 
favorable  variation;  and,  as  this  selection  is  repeated 
generation  after  generation,  the  favorable  variation  is  in- 
creased, and  finally  a  new  species  is  the  result. 

This  explanation  is  not  now  regarded  as  entirely  satis- 
factory, for  the  multiplication  of  facts  has  introduced 
serious  difficulties.  But  whether  natural  selection  pro- 
duces new  species  or  not,  it  must  play  an  important  role 
in  the  preservation  of  certain  forms  and  in  the  destruction 
of  others. 

4.  The  fourth  epoch  in  the  history  of  evolution  was 
introduced  during  the  present  decade  when  DeVries  of 
Amsterdam  announced  his  "  mutation  theory."  He  had 
observed  that  a  certain  species  of  evening  primrose  oc- 
casionally produced  forms  so  different  from  the  parent  that 
he  regarded  them  as  distinct  species.  They  were  not  the 
small  variations  that  Darwin  used  in  his  theory  of  natural 
selection,  but  the  large  ones  that  had  been  called  "sports," 
and  had  been  disregarded  as  of  any  significance  in  the 
origin  of  species.  DeVries  cultivated  these  plants  for 
many  years,  and  observed  them  generation  after  generation. 
The  sports,  which  he  called  "mutations"  or  "mutants," 
continued  to  appear,  but  in  very  small  numbers  in  propor- 
tion to  the  total  number  of  progeny.  In  this  way  he  ob- 
served this  single  species  of  evening  primrose  produce 
several  new  species,  all  of  which  bred  true  and  showed  no 
tendency  to  run  back  to  the  parent.  He  concluded  that 
new  species  may  be  thus  produced  "at  a  single  bound," 


338          NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE 

and  not  necessarily  by  the  slow  process  of  building  up 
small  variations  generation  after  generation  by  natura! 
selection.  Of  course,  natural  selection  will  determine 
which  of  the  species  thus  produced  will  survive. 

The  mutation  theory  is  so  new  that  it  is  impossible  tc 
say  at  present  whether  it  has  any  general  application,  or  is 
only  a  very  occasional  method.  Whatever  may  be  its  fate 
the  epoch  it  introduced  is  the  epoch  of  the  experimenta 
study  of  evolution,  which  must  be  the  final  resort  in  solving 
such  a  problem. 


CHAPTER    XLIII 

EVOLUTION   AS   SHOWN   BY  PLANTS 

THE  first  plants  lived  in  water,  and  their  whole  structure 
was  fitted  to  this  environment.  The  body  consisted  of  a 
single  cell,  and  since  it  was  a  green  cell  the  plant  could 
make  its  own  food,  as  we  have  seen.  Some  of  these  very 
simple  plant  bodies  bore  threadlike  extensions  of  their 
protoplasm  called  cilia,  and  plants  possessing  these  could 
swim  actively.  Most  of  these  plants,  however,  had  no  such 
power.  Their  method  of  reproduction  was  very  simple, 
the  single  cell  simply  splitting  and  thus  giving  rise  to  two 
new  individuals.  This  method  is  called  vegetative  multi- 
plication, because  no  special  reproductive  cell  is  devoted 
to  the  work  of  reproduction,  but  it  is  done  by  an  ordinary 
working  (vegetative)  cell.  Such  simple  plants  as  these 
primitive  ones  exist  in  great  abundance  to-day.  They 
belong  to  the  great  group  called  Alga,  and  they  may  be 
properly  regarded  as  the  forms  that  "started"  the  plant 
kingdom. 

Later  in  the  evolution  of  plants,  cells  which  clung  to- 
gether began  to  work  together,  and  a  body  of  several  and 
finally  many  cells  was  developed,  the  commonest  form 
among  algae  being  a  simple  or  branching  filament.  There 
were  also  flat,  platelike  bodies. 

In  the  many-celled  plant  bodies  thus  formed,  special 
reproductive  cells  soon  appeared.  Under  certain  con- 

339 


340    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

ditions  the  vegetative  cells  of  the  body  produced  small  cells 
within  themselves,  and  these  escaped  into  the  water.  Such 
special  reproductive  cells  are  called  spores,  and  as  they 
swim  actively  by  means  of  cilia  they  are  called  swimming 
spores.  These  spores  swim  about  for  a  time,  but  gradu- 
ally settle  down,  and  each  one  produces  a  new  plant. 

Still  later  in  the  history  of  plants,  another  kind  of 
reproduction  was  developed.  Swimming  spores  much 
smaller  than  the  ordinary  ones  were  produced,  and  these 
were  unable  to  give  rise  to  new  plants.  However,  they 
came  together  and  fused  in  pairs,  and  the  resulting  cell, 
produced  by  the  fusion  of  two  cells,  did  have  the  power  of 
producing  a  new  plant.  These  pairing  cells  are  gametes 
and  this  process  of  cell  fusion  is  fertilization.  This 
method  of  reproduction  is  the  sexual  method,  and  this 
transformation  of  swimming  spores  into  fusing  spores  or 
gametes  is  the  origin  of  sex. 

There  have  thus  been  developed  three  methods  of  re- 
production, in  the  following  order:  vegetative  multiplica- 
tion, reproduction  by  spores,  and  sexual  reproduction.  All 
three  methods  are  retained  by  all  the  higher  plants. 

A  further  advance  in  sex  reproduction  was  secured  by 
what  is  called  the  differentiation  of  sex.  When  sex  first 
appeared,  the  pairing  gametes  were  alike,  but  later  they 
became  different.  One  became  much  larger  than  the 
other  and  lost  its  cilia  and  hence  the  power  of  locomotion. 
The  other  retained  its  small  size  and  activity.  These  two 
kinds  of  gametes  have  received  different  names,  the  large 
passive  one  being  the  egg,  and  the  small  active  one  the 
sperm.  In  this  way  not  only  sex,  but  two  sexes  were  de- 
veloped. The  cell  produced  by  the  fusion  of  sperm  and 


EVOLUTION  AS  SHOWN  BY  PLANTS          341 

egg  is  called  the  fertilized  egg,  and  this  process  is  the  same 
in  plants  and  animals. 

All  this  progress  in  evolution  was  made  by  the  Algae 
and  it  may  be  summed  up  as  resulting  in  plants  with  many- 
celled  bodies  reproducing  by  vegetative  multiplication,  by 
swimming  spores,  and  by  fertilized  eggs. 

The  next  great  advance  was  the  emergence  of  plants 
from  the  water  to  the  land,  and  this  important  step  seems 
to  have  been  responsible  for  all  the  later  development  of 
the  plant  kingdom.  In  other  words,  had  plants  always 
remained  in  the  water,  there  is  very  good  evidence  for  the 
belief  that  they  would  never  have  developed  into  forms 
much  more  complex  than  the  ones  which  have  been  de- 
scribed. Land  plants  are  more  complex  and  diversified 
than  water  plants,  just  as  land  conditions  are  more  varied 
than  aquatic  conditions.  Thus  always,  to  some  extent,  we 
find  a  reflection  of  the  conditions  of  the  environment  in  the 
structures  of  the  organisms  which  inhabit  that  environ- 
ment. 

This  emergence  from  the  water  and  the  formation  of  the 
land  habit  were  accomplished  by  that  great  group  of  plants, 
next  above  the  Algae,  which  comprises  the  liverworts  and 
the  mosses.  The  land  habit  means  exposure  to  air  instead 
of  to  water,  and  the  danger  to  be  guarded  against  is  the 
drying  out  of  the  body.  We  recognize  that  water  is  the 
primary  need  of  the  animal  as  well  as  the  plant  body,  and 
that  the  individual  cells  of  our  body  require  a  fluid  medium 
for  their  life  just  as  truly  as  a  fish  requires  water.  This 
fact  alone  is  strongly  suggestive  of  the  remote  aquatic 
ancestry  of  all  living  things.  Plant  bodies  became  more 
compact,  but  for  a  long  time  could  live  on  land  only  by 


342   NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

lying  prostrate  on  muddy  flats;  such  flats  as  we  find  on  very 
gently  sloping  seashores  between  the  tide  marks.  Swim- 
ming spores  were  necessarily  abandoned,  and  light  spores 
for  dispersal  by  air  took  their  place.  The  gametes 
(sperms  and  eggs)  were  produced  in  better  protected 
organs,  with  jackets  of  protecting  cells.  Such  an  organ 
containing  sperms  is  the  antheridium,  and  the  one  contain- 
ing eggs  is  the  archegonium. 

However,  the  greatest  change  introduced  at  this  stage 
of  evolution  was  what  is  called  the  alternation  o]  genera- 
tions, and  this  change  profoundly  affected  all  the  future 
development  of  the  plant  kingdom.  Unless  it  is  under- 
stood, no  true  interpretation  of  plant-life  histories  is  possi- 
ble. In  this  early  alternation  of  generations  the  green 
plant  body  formed  no  spores,  but  did  form  the  sperms  and 
eggs.  Then  the  fertilized  eggs,  instead  of  producing  a  form 
like  their  parent,  as  animal  eggs  do,  produce  an  entirely 
different  structure.  This  other  structure,  or  other  plant, 
produces  no  sperms  and  eggs,  but  does  produce  spores; 
the  plant  is  thus  for  the  second  time,  but  in  a  very  different 
way,  reduced  to  the  one-cell  stage  in  its  life  history.  Then 
when  one  of  these  one-celled  spores  germinates  (which  it 
does  of  course  without  waiting  for  any  act  of  fertilization), 
it  produces  the  original  sperm-and-egg-bearing  plant. 
In  this  way  two  really  perfectly  distinct  plants  alternate 
with  each  other  in  making  up  the  life  history.  The  sperm- 
and-egg  producing  generation  is  called  the  gametophyte  or 
gamete  plant,  and  the  other  the  sporophyte  or  spore  plant. 
The  gametophyte  is  sexual,  and  the  sporophyte  is  sexless, 
and  each  in  turn  produces  the  other,  and  this  habit  con- 
tinues throughout  all  the  higher  groups  of  plants. 


EVOLUTION  AS  SHOWN  BY  PLANTS          343 

In  liverworts  and  mosses  the  sporophyte  is  small  and 
not  green.  Since  it  cannot  make  its  own  food  it  attaches 
itself  to  the  green  gametophyte  and  lives  upon  it  as  a  para- 
site lives  upon  its  host;  yet  it  is  no  more  an  organic  part  of 
the  gametophyte  generation  than  the  mildew  which  grows 
upon  lilac  leaves  is  a  part  of  the  lilac. 

In  the  next  higher  group  of  plants — which  is  the  fern 
group — the  next  great  advance  is  to  be  observed.  The 
sporophyte  has  become  green,  can  make  its  own  food,  and 
is  therefore  independent  of  the  gametophyte.  Not  only 
that,  but  its  green  tissue  has  developed  into  leaves;  it  has 
developed  roots  which  connect  it  with  the  soil;  and  run- 
ning from  the  roots  up  into  the  leaves  there  appears  that 
elaborate  water-conducting  system  of  tissue  known  as  the 
•vascular  system.  This  system  is  chiefly  composed  of  the 
woody  strands  so  familiar  as  wood  in  the  higher  plants. 
The  ferns  and  their  allies  differ,  therefore,  from  the  liver- 
worts and  mosses  in  having  independent  leafy'  sporo- 
phytes,  with  roots  and  a  vascular  system. 

With  the  large  development  of  the  sporophyte,  and  its 
assumption  of  the  task  of  food  making  with  its  large  leaves, 
and  its  continuation  from  season  to  season  by  means  of 
its  fleshy  underground  stem,  it  seems  natural  to  find  the 
gametophyte  correspondingly  reduced.  In  fact,  although 
leading  an  independent  nutritive  life,  the  gametophyte  in 
ferns  is  relatively  inconspicuous.  It  looks  like  an  ex- 
ceedingly small  liverwort;  like  a  little  green,  heart-shaped 
bit  of  leaf  which  often  escapes  attention  entirely.  It  is 
called  the  prolhallium.  Thus,  we  see  that  the  fern  plant 
of  ordinary  observation  is  a  sporophyte  or  sexless  plant, 
while  the  moss  of  ordinary  observation  is  a  gametophyte  or 
23 


344    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

sexual  plant.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  early  students  of 
ferns  could  find  no  sex  organs,  for  the  plants  they  ex- 
amined were  sporophytes. 

Certain  plants  known  as  uclub  mosses "  and  "ground 
pines"  belong  to  the  fern  group  and  are  better  than  the 
common  ferns  to  illustrate  the  other  points  of  advancing 
differentiation  which  appear  in  this  group.  They  are 
often  used  for  Christmas  greens  and  are  found  in  abundance 
in  the  pine  woods  of  the  North.  Their  long  prostrate 
stems  are  thickly  covered  with  narrow,  pointed,  green 
leaves,  giving  them  quite  a  tufted  or  bushy  appearance,  and 
explaining  the  name ' '  ground  pine."  Now  the  sporophyte 
in  all  members  of  the  fern  group  bears  on  its  leaves  special 
spore-producing  organs  called  "  sporangia."  Clusters  of 
these  sporangia  forming  brown  dots  or  patches  are  matters 
of  common  observation  on  the  under  sides  of  fern  leaves. 
At  first,  in  the  evolution  of  ferns,  all  the  leaves  bore  sporangia, 
but  presently  there  appeared  leaves  of  two  kinds,  one  being 
an  ordinary  foliage  leaf  doing  exclusively  the  work  of  food 
making  and  bearing  no  sporangia  at  all,  the  other  doing  no 
ordinary  foliage  work  and  being  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
bearing  of  sporangia.  The  latter  kind  of  leaves  are  called 
sporophylls  or  spore  leaves.  Sometimes  they  do  some 
ordinary  leaf  work  as  well  as  the  work  of  sporangia  pro- 
ducing. Now  in  the  club  mosses  we  find  these  sporo- 
phylls grouped  together  in  a  club-shaped  tuft  at  the  end  of 
the  branches,  and  this  definite,  conelike  cluster  of  sporo- 
phylls is  called  a  strobilus.  The  strobilus  is  a  very  impor- 
tant organ  to  understand,  because  it  is  the  forerunner  of 
that  very  familiar  organ  the  flower.  It  is  fair  to  say  that 
the  flower  cannot  be  really  understood  unless  we  under- 


EVOLUTION  AS   SHOWN  BY  PLANTS 


345 


stand  the  strobilus.  The  pine  cone  furnishes  perhaps  the 
most  familiar  example  of  a  strobilus  or  "  aggregation  of 
sporophylls." 

The  other  important  step  which  is  introduced  by  a  few 
members  of  the  fern  and  club-moss  group  has  to  do  with 
the  spores.  Up  to  this  point  spores  are  all  alike.  They  all 
produce  just  one  kind  of  gametophyte,  that  gametophyte 
bearing  both  kinds  of  sex  organs — the  antheridia  which 
contain  sperms  and  the  archegonia  which  contain  eggs. 
But  now,  in  the  few  members  of  the  fern  group  referred  to 
(selaginella,  a  common  foliage  plant  in  greenhouses  is  one 
of  them),  two  distinct  kinds  of  spores  are  produced.  One 
of  these  is  relatively  very  large  and  is  called  the  megaspore. 
The  other  is  relatively  very  small  and  is  called  the  micro- 
spore.  The  megaspore  produces  a  gametophyte  which 
bears  only  archegonia,  and  is  therefore  called  a  female 
gametophyte.  The  microspore  produces  a  gametophyte 
which  bears  only  antheridia,  and  is  therefore  called  a  male 
gametophyte.  This  condition,  in  which  two  kinds  of  spores 
are  produced,  is  called  heterospory.  Heterospory  is  just  as 
important  to  understand  as  the  strobilus,  for  this  habit  is 
the  forerunner  of  seed  formation,  and  the  seed  cannot  be 
understood  without  understanding  heterospory. 

When  heterospory  appears  the  gametophytes  become 
small  and  parasitic,  just  as  the  sporophytes  were  small  and 
parasitic  when  they  first  appeared.  In  fact  the  gameto- 
phytes of  heterosporous  plants  are  parasitic  within  the 
spores  that  produce  them.  We  see  herein  some  explanation 
of  the  size  of  the  megaspores.  Not  only  do  they  have  to 
have  food  stored  up  to  provide  for  their  own  germination, 
they  must  also  provide  food  for  the  whole  development  of 


346    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

the  female  gametophyte  and  the  formation  of  the  eggs;  for 
the  female  gametophyte,  instead  of  developing  outward 
and  into  an  independent  plant,  as  its  forerunners  did,  will 
develop  inward  and  live  as  a  parasite  upon  its  mother,  the 
megaspore.  The  sporophyte  began  by  being  dependent 
upon  the  gametophyte,  and  now  the  gametophyte  in  turn 
has  become  dependent  upon  the  sporophyte. 

The  group  of  plants  next  higher  than  the  fern  plants  is 
the  highest  of  all  and  is  commonly  known  as  the  "  flowering 
plants,"  but  it  is  better  called  the  "seed  plants."  (There 
are  some  seed  plants  which  could  hardly  be  said  to  be 
flower  bearers.)  To  understand  this  group  one  must 
carry  forward  the  ideas  of  strobilus  and  heterospory  and 
see  how  they  result  in  flower  and  seed. 

Among  seed  plants  the  strobilus  continues  for  a  long 
time,  notably  so  in  the  group  to  which  the  pines  belong. 
Finally  a  third  type  of  leaflike  structure  appears  and  this 
new  member  is  close  to  the  sporophylls.  Presently  we  see 
this  new  organ  itself  differentiated  into  two  kinds,  and  these 
are  called  sepals  and  petals,  which  are  the  most  familiar 
parts  of  a  flower.  Thus  we  may  say  that  when  a  strobilus 
has  sepals  and  petals  associated  with  its  sporophylls  it  is  a 
flower.  We  must  note  that  the  sporophylls  of  a  flower 
were  called  stamens  and  carpels  or  pistils  long  before  their 
real  nature  was  understood,  and  these  names  still  persist. 
It  used  to  be  thought  that  stamens  were  male  organs  and 
the  pistil  the  female  organ,  and  plants  which  have  stamens 
on  one  individual  and  pistils  in  the  flowers  of  another  gave 
rise  to  the  idea  of  distinct  male  and  female  plants.  But, 
if  the  argument  has  been  followed  up  to  this  point,  the 
inaccuracy  of  this  view  is  perfectly  obvious.  The  stamens 


EVOLUTION  AS  SHOWN  BY  PLANTS          347 

and  pistils  are  members  of  a  sexless  generation,  or  sporo- 
phyte.  They  themselves  are  sporophylls  or  spore-pro- 
ducing leaves.  The  stamens  produce  that  very  obvious 
and  well-known  product  of  flowers  the  pollen;  and  the 
grains  of  pollen  are  microspores  or  sexless  spores,  which 
upon  germination  will  produce  the  male  generation  of  the 
plant;  but  they  themselves  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
male  element.  They  have  been  thus  confused  largely  on 
account  of  the  process  of  transfer  of  pollen  from  stamen  to 
stigma  at  the  top  of  the  pistil.  This  process  is  commonly 
called  fertilization  and  that  is  the  name  of  the  sex  process, 
and  if  this  were  fertilization  the  pollen  certainly  would  be 
the  male  element.  But  this  process  is  not  fertilization. 
It  is  pollination,  and  pollination  is  no  more  fertilization 
than  the  delivery  of  a  bar  of  steel  at  a  watch  factory  is 
the  manufacture  of  a  delicately  tempered  watch  spring. 
Fertilization  occurs  after  pollination — it  may  be  hours  or 
days  or  even  weeks  after — and  it  is  a  process  which  occurs 
down  at  the  very  base  of  the  pistil  among  those  "baby 
seed"  organs  known  as  ovules.  It  is  wholly  distinct  and 
separated  by  an  entire  generation  of  life  history  from  the 
deposit  of  the  pollen  grain  by  insect  visit  or  uncertain  breeze 
upon  the  sticky  stigma.  It  is  also  separated  in  position  by 
the  commonly  elongated  " style"  of  the  pistil  down  which 
the  pollen  tube  must  grow,  and  it  is  this  pollen  tube  which 
carries  the  male  cells. 

In  flowers,  in  addition  to  having  the  differentiation  of 
two  kinds  of  spores,  which  we  found  also  in  some  of  the 
fern  group,  we  have  also  the  differentiation  of  two  kinds  of 
sporophylls.  That  is,  the  stamen  is  one  kind  of  sporo- 
phyll:  it  bears  microspores  which  are  commonly  known  as 


348    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

pollen.  The  carpels,  usually  united  to  form  the  organ 
known  as  the  pistil,  are  another  kind  of  sporophyll;  they 
bear  the  megaspores,  and  the  megaspores  are  commonly 
known  as  nothing  at  all  because  they  are  never  seen.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  never  are  discharged  from  the 
sporangium  which  bears  them.  This  sporangium  forms 
most  of  the  structure  commonly  known  as  the  ovule. 

Having  noted  that  the  state  of  producing  two  kinds  of 
spores  is  called  heterospory,  we  can  see,  for  the  sake  of 
clearness,  that  the  state  of  bearing  two  kinds  of  sporophylls, 
each  of  which  bears  a  kind  of  sporangium  different  from 
that  borne  by  the  other,  might  be  called  heterosporophylly. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  that  cumbersome  word  is  not  used,  but 
the  fact  which  it  names  needs  to  be  made  clear,  and  is  ex- 
emplified by  stamens  and  carpels. 

Also,  having  noted  that  in  heterosporous  plants  the 
generations  which  result  from  the  germination  of  the  spores, 
that  is  the  gametophytes,  are  ingrowing  within  the  spores 
and  parasitic,  we  now  need  to  note  that  the  next  step  in 
this  direction  is  the  case  of  the  ovule  cited  above.  That 
is,  the  megaspores  were  said  to  have  no  common  name 
because  they  are  never  seen  under  ordinary  circumstances; 
they  are  retained  within  the  ovules  which  bear  them,  and 
there  the  male  generation  or  pollen  tube,  bearing  the  sperms, 
goes  in  search  for  the  eggs  which  have  developed  in  the 
internal,  parasitic  female  gametophyte  inside  the  mega- 
spore.  Thus  we  have  here,  added  to  the  retention  of  the 
gametophyte  within  its  mother  spore,  the  retention  of  the 
spore  itself  within  its  mother  sporangium,  and  with  the 
arrival  of  this  step  in  evolution  we  have  the  arrival  of  that 
great  epoch-marking  habit  in  plants:  the  seed  habit. 


EVOLUTION  AS   SHOWN   BY  PLANTS          349 

These  last  points,  with  reference  to  flowers,  are  not  at 
all  easy  to  grasp  outside  of  a  laboratory  course  in  the  sub- 
ject, despite  the  familiarity  of  the  material  discussed,  and  a 
restatement  of  the  points  appears  desirable.  In  connec- 
tion with  this  study  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  few  complete 
flowers,  such  as  any  of  the  lily  type,  available  for  use  in 
identifying  and  making  perfectly  concrete  the  points 
referred  to. 

Since  stamens  and  carpels  or  pistils  are  sporophylls, 
they,  of  course,  bear  the  two  kinds  of  sporangia:  those 
that  produce  microspores  (pollen  grains)  and  those  that 
produce  megaspores.  If  stamens  and  carpels  are  sporo- 
phylls, it  follows  that  they  cannot  be  sex  organs,  according 
to  the  old  notion,  for  they  are  structures  that  belong  to  the 
sporophyte  or  sexless  generation. 

The  two  gametophytes  (male  and  female)  in  seed  plants 
are  found  just  where  they  occur  in  all  heterosporous  plants, 
namely,  within  the  spores  that  produce  them.  The  male 
gametophyte,  with  its  sperms,  is  within  the  microspore 
(pollen  grain).  The  > female  gametophyte,  with  its  egg, 
is  within  the  megaspore.  The  sporangium  that  produces 
the  megaspore  in  seed  plants  has  long  been  called  the  ovule, 
and  its  greatest  peculiarity  is  that  it  does  not  shed  its  spore. 
Therefore,  inside  of  the  ovule  is  the  megaspore,  and  inside 
of  the  megaspore  is  the  female  gametophyte.  It  is  no 
wonder  that  the  gametophytes  (sexual  plants)  of  seed 
plants  are  seen  only  in  the  laboratory  under  the  microscope, 
and  then  only  after  special  technic  has  made  them 
visible. 

The  egg  produced  by  the  female  gametophyte  remains 
within  the  ovule  and  is  there  fertilized,  and  there  produces 


350    NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

a  young  sporophyte.  At  the  same  time  the  ovule  (spor- 
angium) produces  a  hard  coat,  and  the  whole  structure  is 
called  the  seed.  In  a  seed,  therefore,  we  see  that  three 
generations  are  represented:  the  ovule  (sporangium)  be- 
longs to  the  old  sporophyte,  and  is  always  represented  by 
at  least  the  testa  or  hard  outer  coat  of  the  seed.  Within  the 
outer  part  of  the  old  ovule  lies  imbedded  the  female  gameto- 
phyte,  which  resulted  from  the  germination  of  the  mega- 
spore,  grew  as  an  internal  parasite,  bore  the  now  fertilized 
egg,  and  after  fertilization  constitutes  that  part  of  the  seed 
commonly  known  as  endosperm.  Finally,  and  innermost, 
imbedded  within  the  female  gametophyte,  lies  the  third 
generation  which  is  included  in  this  wonderful  organ,  the 
seed.  This  innermost  of  the  three  members  of  the  seed  is  the 
young  sporophyte  of  the  yet  undeveloped  generation,  and  it 
is  called  the  embryo.  Thus  we  should  see  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  know  what  a  seed  really  is  unless  we  approach 
it  from  the  lower  groups  and  come  to  an  understanding  of 
its  evolution. 


INDEX 


Acquired  characters,  335. 
Activity,  48. 
Adaptability,  23. 
Agriculture  and  Nature  Study, 
i. 

AJgae.  339- 

Alternation  of  generations,  342. 
Animals,  103,  107. 
Antheridium,  342. 
Ants,  115. 
Aphids,  217.     . 
Archegonium,  342. 
Assimilation,  327. 

Bacteria,  224. 

Biology,  Nature  Study  and,  9. 
Birds,  87,  88,  91,  92,  95,  96, 
98,  99,  101,  102,  104,  105, 
106,  112,  122. 

destruction,  304. 

how  to  attract,  310. 

study,  303. 
Blue  grass,  131. 
Botany,  106. 
Bulb  gardening,  186. 
Bumblebees,  149. 
Butterfly,  cabbage,  140. 

Cabbage  butterfly,  140. 

Carpels,  348. 

Cell,  324. 

Child  and  Nature  Study,  75. 


Chlorophyll,  295,  329. 
Chloroplasts,  329. 
Clothing,  83,  84,  85,  86. 
Clovers,  147. 
Club  mosses,  344. 
Comparison,  55. 
Condensation,  235. 
Continuity,  22. 
Corn,  seed,  231. 
Cow,  107. 

Currant  worm,  129. 
Cuttings,  1 68. 
Cytoplasm,  325. 

Darwin,  335. 
Dead  work,  31. 
Definiteness,  50. 
Dependence,  40. 
De  Vries,  337. 
Diastase,  326. 
Digestion,  297,  326. 
Drainage,  300. 

Egg*  340. 

Eighth-grade  work,    104,    147, 

149,  207. 

Embryo,  331,  350. 
Endosperm,  350. 
Enthusiasm,  61. 
Environment,  334. 
Enzyme,  326. 
Evaporation,  235. 


352 

Evolution,  in  plant  kingdom, 

339; 

theories,  333. 
Exactness,  27. 
Experimentation,  7. 

Fall  work,  82,  85,  87,  92,  95, 
99,  102,  104,  118,  120,  124. 
Ferns,  343. 
Fertilization,  340,  347. 

misconception,  322. 
Fertilizers,  302. 
Fifth-grade  work,  95,  131. 
First-grade  work,  82,  107. 
Flicker,  112. 
Flowering  plants,  346. 
Flowers,  346. 

wild,  93,  191. 
Food,  82,  83,  84,  85,  86. 

manufacture,  296. 
Forage  plants,  147. 
Fourth-grade  work,    92,    124, 

126,  129. 
Fungi,  105,  224. 

Gametes,  340. 
Gametophyte,  342. 
Garden,  rural  school,  203. 

school,  314. 

work,  86,  87,  90,  92,  93,  95, 
97,  99,  100,  102,  103,  104, 
105,118,120,  126,  144,  318. 
Garden  bulbs,  186. 
Germination,  249. 
Gooseberry,  126. 

worm,  129. 
Grades,  primary,  76. 

grammar,  79. 

first,  82,  107. 

second,  85,  109. 


INDEX 


Grades,    third,    87,   112,    115, 

I  l8,    I2O,    122. 

fourth,  92,  124,  126,  129. 

fifth,  95,  131. 

sixth,  99,  136. 

seventh,  102,  140,  144,  207. 

eighth,  104,  147,  149,  207. 
Grammar  grades,  79. 
Grape,  144. 
Grasshoppers,  173. 
Grub,  white,  220. 

Heat,  effect  on  bodies,  241. 
Heating,  methods  of,  244. 
Heterospory,  345. 
Home  experiments,  253. 
Horse,  86. 
Humus,  301. 

Independence,  26. 
Individual  work,  52. 
Inference,  36. 
Initiative,  8. 
Inquiry,  65. 

Insects,  observations,  88,  91, 
92,  94,  96,  98,  99,  101, 
102,  103,  104,  106,  115, 
124,  129,  136,  140,  149, 
217. 

study,  172. 
water,  197. 
Interest,  21,  26,  34. 
latent,  6. 

Lamarck,  334. 

Land  habit,  341. 

Lawns,  97,  131. 

Light,  and  food  manufacture, 

296. 
Liverworts,  341. 


INDEX 


353 


Manure,  302. 
Maple,  109. 
Megaspore,  345. 
Microspore,  345. 
Misconceptions,    some    funda- 
mental, 320. 
Mold,  225. 
Mosses,  341. 
Mushrooms,  224. 
Mutation,  337. 

Natural  selection,  335. 
Nature  Study,  agriculture,  i. 

biology,  9. 

children,  75. 

dangers,  29. 

educative  result,  17,  25. 

mission,  n. 

obstacles,  12. 

principles,  46. 

science,  16. 

sentiment,  16. 

spirit,  60. 
Nucleus,  325. 

Oats,  study,  255. 
Observation,  53. 
Osmosis,  289. 
Outlines,  topical,  82. 

typical,  107. 

use,  41. 
Ovule,  349. 

Persistence,  70. 
Petals,  346. 

Photosynthesis,  296,  328. 
Physical  experiments,  235. 

observations,  89,  93,  97,  100. 
Physiology,  288,  324. 
Pistil,  346. 


Plant  breeding,  214. 

products,  259. 

work,  288. 
Pollen,  348. 

Pollination,  210,  331,  347. 
Primary  grades,  work,  76. 
Products,  plant,  259. 
Progressive  work,  80. 
Proof,  nature  of,  27. 
Pro  thallium,  343. 
Protoplasm,  324. 
Protoplasts,  324. 

Reproduction,  330. 
Respiration,  298,  327. 

misconception,  322. 
Roots,    absorption    of    water, 

290. 

Rotation  of  crops,  300. 
Rural  schools,  gardening,  203. 

outline,  153. 

suggestions,  158. 

School  garden,  24,  314. 

for  different  grades,  318. 
Second-grade  work,  85,  109. 
Seed  habit,  348. 

plants,  346. 
Seeds,  formation  of,  210. 

germination  of,  249. 
Sentimentality,  38. 
Sepals,  346. 
Seventh-grade  work,  102,  140, 

144,  207. 
Sex,  340. 

Shelter,  83,  84,  85,  86. 
Sixth-grade  work,  99,  136. 
Sketching,  51. 
Sky,  99. 
Soil,  94,  103. 


354 


INDEX 


Soil,  chemistry,  264. 

handling,  299. 

origin,  277. 

physical  properties,  280. 

test  for  acid,  269. 

test  for  alkali,  270. 

test  for  salt,  270. 
Sparrow,  122. 
Sperm,  340. 
Sporangia,  344. 
Spores,  332,  340. 
Sporophylls,  344. 
Sporophyte,  342. 
Spring  work,   83,   86,   90,   93, 
97,    100,    103,    105,    118, 
1 20. 

Stamens,  346. 
Stigma,  347. 
Strobilus,  344. 
Style,  347- 
Sweet  pea,  120. 

Teachers,  29. 

misconceptions,  320. 

training,  5. 

Tentacles  of  inquiry,  19. 
Terminology,  33. 
Third-grade    work,     87,     115, 

118,  120,  122. 
Tillage,  299. 
Toadstools,  224. 


Tomato,  118. 

worm,  124. 
Transpiration,  294. 
Trees,  87,  88,  91,  92,  94,  95, 
97,  99,  101,  109. 

suggestions  for  study,  162. 
Truth,  68. 

Use  and  disuse,  334. 

Vacation  experiments,  253. 
Vascular  system,  343. 
Vegetative  multiplication,  339. 

Water,  absorption,  290. 

ascent,  293. 

life,  i973 

loss,  294. 

Water  beetles,  136. 
Weather,  102. 

record,  182. 

study,  181. 
Weeds,  list,  180. 

plan  for  study,  177. 
Wild  flowers,  study,  191. 
Winter  work,   83,   86,   89,   93, 

97,  100,  103,  105. 
Worms,  tomato,  124. 

currant,  129. 

gooseberry,  129. 

white  grub,  220. 


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